THE 


JAPANESE 


IN    AMERICA. 


EDITED    BY 

CHARLES   LANMAN, 

AMERICAN  SECRETARY   OF  JAPANESE   LEGATION   IN   WASHINGTON. 


NEW    YORK: 
UNIVERSITY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

155  AND  157  CROSBY  STREET. 
1872. 


& 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S72,  by  the 

UNIVERSITY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
la  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


THE  threefold  object  of  this  volume  is  to  give  an  ac 
count,  from  official  sources,  of  the  Embassy  recently  accred 
ited  to  the  United  States  by  the  Tenno  of  Japan  ;  to  print 
a  collection  of  essays  written  by  the  Japanese  students 
now  residing  in  this  country  and  illustrating  their  style  of 
thought  and  expression  ;  and  to  republish  a  little  work  on 
America,  compiled  under  the  direction  of  Jugoi  Arinori 
Mori,  the  Charge  d'Affaires  from  Japan,  An  edition  of  the 
last-named  production  was  printed  under  the  title  of  Life 
and  Resources  in  America,  and  intended  for  exclusive  cir 
culation  in  Japan,  where  it  is  to  be  translated  into  the  lan 
guage  of  that  country.  It  having  been  suggested  to  Mr. 
Mori,  by  many  of  his  friends,  that  the  American  public 
would  be  glad  to  read  the  volume,  he  considered  the  ques 
tion  in  a  friendly  spirit,  and  consented  to  its  republication 
in  the  present  form. 


270943 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

PAGE 
THE  JAPANESE  EMBASSY  ....................................      7 


PART  IT. 

THE  JAPANESE  STUDENTS  .................................     55 

THE  PRACTICAL  AMERICANS  .....  ...............  Enouye.    67 

THE  CHINESE  AMBASSADORS  IN  FRANCE  .........  Toyama.    73 

CO-EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  AND  GIRLS  ...............  Takato.    78 

ORIENTAL  CIVILIZATION  ......................  Hicomaro.  81 

HISTORY  OF  JAPAN  .............................  Megata.    86 

CHRISTIANITY  IN  JAPAN  ..........................  Hyash.    91 

THE  STRENGTH  AND  WEAKNESS  OF  REPUBLICS.  .Enouye.    94 
JAPANESE  COSTUME  ..............................  Kanda.  100 

A  FATHER'S  LETTER  .............................  Neero.  103 

THE  MEMORABLE  YEAR  ........................  Enouye.  108 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON  ............................  Kanda.  114 

PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  ..................  Enouye.  117 

CHRISTMAS  .......................................  Kanda.  124 

JAPANESE  POETRY.  .  .  .  .  Takaki.  127 


CONTEXTS. 

PART  III. 

PAGK 
LIFE  AND  BESOURCES  IN  AMERICA i ;}; 

INTRODUCTION 180 

OFFICIAL  AND  POLITICAL  LIFE 148 

LIFE  AMONG  THE  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS 159 

COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS 186 

LIFE  AMONG  THE  MECHANICS 203 

RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS 215 

LIFE  IN  THE  FACTORIES 240 

EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS 205 

LITERARY,  ARTISTIC,  AND  SCIENTIFIC  LIFE 282 

LIFE  AMONG  THE  MINERS 301 

LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY 812 

LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING  CITIES.  '322 

FRONTIER  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS 387 

JUDICIAL  LIFE 344 

ADDITIONAL  NOTES...  .  351 


PART  I. 
THE  JAPANESE  EMBASSY. 


ON  the  12th  day  of  January,  1872,  Jujoi  Arinori  Mori, 
the  Japanese  Charge  d' Affaires  in  Washington,  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Hon.  Hamilton  Fish,  Secretary  of  State, 
from  which  we  extract  the  following  paragraphs  :  "  I  have 
the  honor  to  inform  you  that  I  have  received  dispatches 
from  my  Government,  communicating  the  information  that 
a  Special  Embassy  from  the  Tenno  of  Japan  to  the  Govern 
ment  of  the  United  States  would  soon  arrive  in  this 
country.  On  what  particular  day  they  were  to  sail  I  do 
not  know;  but  I  presume  they  will  reach  Washington 
about  the  close  of  the  present  month.  .  .  .  The  object 
to  be  attained  by  this  Embassy  will  be  fully  stated  on  a 
future  occasion  ;  but,  in  the  mean  time,  I  may  remark  that 
one  of  them  will  be  to  increase  the  friendly  relations 
already  existing  between  Japan  and  the  United  States." 

In  November,  1871,  his  Majesty  MOXTSOHITO,  Emperor 
of  Japan,  had,  at  a  dinner  given  to  his  nobles  at  his  palace 
in  Tokei,  before  sending  forth  the  Ambassadors  of  Japan 
and  Suite,  accredited  to  the  Fifteen  Foreign  Treaty  Powers, 
delivered  the  following 


THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

ADDRESS :  * 

"AFTER  careful  study  and  observation,  I  am  deeply  im 
pressed  with  the  belief  that  the  most  powerful  and  en 
lightened  nations  of  the  world  are  those  who  have  made  dil 
igent  effort  to  cultivate  their  minds,  and  sought  to  develop 
their  country  in  the  fullest  and  most  perfect  manner. 

"Thus  convinced,  it  becomes  my  responsible  duty,  as  a 
Sovereign,  to  lead  our  people  wisely,  in  a  way  to  attain 
for  them  results  equally  beneficial ;  and  their  duty  is"  to 
assist  diligently  and  unitedly  in  all  efforts  to  attain  these 
ends.  How,  otherwise,  can  Japan  advance  and  sustain 
herself  upon  an  independent  footing  among  the  nations  of 
the  world  ? 

"  From  you,  nobles  of  this  realm,  whose  dignified  position 
is  honored  and  conspicuous  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  at 
large,  I  ask  and  expect  conduct  well  becoming  your  ex 
alted  position — ever  calculated  to  endorse,  by  your  per 
sonal  example,  those  goodly  precepts  to  be  employed 
hereafter  in  elevating  the  masses  of  our  people. 

"  I  have  to-day  assembled  your  honorable  body  in  our 
presence-chamber  that  I  might  first  express  to  you  my 
intentions,  and,  in  foreshadowing  my  policy,  also  impress 
you  all  with  the  fact  that  both  this  Government  and  people 
wrill  expect  from  you  diligence  and  wisdom,  while  leading 
and  encouraging  those  in  your  several  districts,  to  move 
forward  in  paths  of  progress.  Remember,  your  responsi 
bility  to  your  country  is  both  great  and  important.  What 
ever  our  natural  capacity  for  intellectual  development, 
diligent  effort  and  cultivation  is  required  to  attain  success 
ful  results. 

"  If  we  would  profit  by  the  useful  arts  and  sciences  and 
conditions  of  society  prevailing  among  more  enlightened 
nations,  we  must  either  study  these  at  home  as  best  we 
can,  or  send  abroad  an  expedition  of  practical  observers, 
to  foreign  lands,  competent  to  acquire  for  us  those  things 

*  Translated  by  NORIUKI  GAH. 


HISTORY   OF  THE  EMBASSY.  7 

our  people  lack,  which  are  best  calculated  to  benefit  this 
nation. 

"  Travel  in  foreign  countries,  properly  indulged  in,  will 
increase  your  store  of  useful  knowledge;  and  although 
some  of  you  may  be  advanced  in  age,  unfitted  for  the 
vigorous  study  of  new  ways,  all  may  bring  back  to  our 
people  much  valuable  information.  Great  national  defects 
require  immediate  remedies. 

"  We  lack  superior  institutions  for  high  female  culture. 
Our  women  should  not  be  ignorant  of  those  great  prin 
ciples  on  which  the  happiness  of  daily  life  frequently  de 
pends.  How  important  the  education  of  mothers,  on  whom 
future  generations  almost  wholly  rely  for  the  early  cultiva 
tion  of  those  intellectual  tastes  which  an  enlightened  system 
of  training  is  designed  to  develop  ! 

"  Liberty  is  therefore  granted  wives  and  sisters  to  accom 
pany  their  relatives  on  foreign  tours,  that  they  may  acquaint 
themselves  with  better  forms  of  female  education,  and,  on 
their  return,  introduce  beneficial  improvements  in  the  train 
ing  of  our  children. 

"  With  diligent  and  united  efforts,  manifested  by  all  classes 
and  conditions  of  people  throughout  the  empire,  we  may 
attain  successively  the  highest  degrees  of  civilization  within 
our  reach,  and  shall  experience  no  serious  difficulty  in  main 
taining  power,  independence,  and  respect  among  nations. 

"To  you,  nobles,  I  look  for  the  endorsement  of^these 
views ;  fulfill  my  best  expectations  by  carrying  out  these 
suggestions,  and  you  will  perform  faithfully  your  indi 
vidual  duties  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  people  of  Japan." 

On  the  morning  of  January  15th,  the  steamer  America 
arrived  at  San  Francisco,  having  on  board  one  hundred 
and  seven  Japanese  passengers,  of  whom  forty-nine  con 
stituted  the  Embassy,  while  the  remainder  consisted  of  five 
young  ladies  and  fifty-three  young  gentlemen  and  servants, 
who  were  accompanied  by  the  Hon.  Charles  E.  DeLong. 


8  THE   JAPANESE   Itf   AMERICA. 

American  Minister  to  Japan,  and  his  family,  and  W.  S. 
Rice,  Esq.,  Interpreter  of  the  United  States  Legation  in 
Japan.  The  official  list  of  officers  composing  the  Embassy 
is  as  follows : 

Ambassador  Extraordinary. 

NAMES  AND  RANK.  OFFICIAL  POSITION  IN  JAPAN. 

Rionii  TOMOMI  IWAKURA Junior  Prime  Minister. 

Vice-Ambassadors  Extraordinary. 

Jussammi  TAKAYOSSI  KIDO Council  of  State. 

Jussammi  TOSSIMTTSI  OKUBO Minister  of  Finance. 

Jushie  HIROBUMI  ITO Acting      Minister    of    Public 

Works. 

Jushie  MASSOUKA  YAMAGUTSI Assistant  Minister  of  the  For 
eign  Affairs. 

First  Secretaries. 

YASKAZOU  TANABE Foreign  Department. 

NORIUKI  GAH Foreign  Department. 

ATSNOBOU  SHIODA Foreign  Department. 

GHEN-ITSIRO  FOUKOUTSI Treasury  Department. 

Second  Secretaries. 

HLROMOTO  WATANABE Foreign  Department. 

TERMORI  COMATZ Foreign  Department. 

TAD  AS  HYASH Foreign  Department. 

KELJIRO  NAGANO Foreign  Department. 

Third  Secretary. 
QUANDO  KAWAGE Foreign  Department 

Fourth.  Secretaries. 

MASSATSNK  IKEDA Educational  Department. 

TADATSNE  ANDO Foreign  Department. 

Private  Secretary  to  Chief  Ambassador. 
KOUNITAKE  KOUME Clerk  to  the  Legislative  Code. 

Attache. 
YASSI  NOMOURA Foreign  Department. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   EMBASSY.  9 

Commissioners  connected  with  the  Ambassadors. 

NAMES   AND   RANK.  OFFICIAL  POSITION  IN  JAPAN. 

Jushie  TAKANORI  SASSAKI Acting  Minister  of  the   Judi 
cial  Department. 

Jussammi  MITSITOMI  HIGASSIKOUZE  . . Chief  Chamberlain  of  the  Im 
perial  Court. 

Jugoi  AKIYOSSI  YAMADA Brigadier-General  of  the  Im 
perial  Army. 

Mrrs-Aia  TANAKA Commissioner  of  the    Bureau 

of  Census,  Treas.  Dept. 

FOUZIMAR  TANAKA Chief  Clerk  of  the  Educational 

Department. 

TAMETOSSI  HID  A . Commissioner  of    Dockyards, 

Public  Work  Department. 

KOBOUTOSSI  NAKAYAMA Vice  Governor  of  Hiogo. 

YASSOUKAZ  YASSOUBA Deputy  Commiss'r  of  Revenue. 

Jushie  YASSOUNAKA  ITSOUTSOUZI.  .  .Assistant    Director    of    Cere 
mony,  Imperial  Court. 

TAD AK ATS  OUTSMI Secretary  to   the  Governor  of 

Kauagawa. 
Officers  attached  to  the  said  Commissioners. 

YOSSIKAZOU  WAKAYAMA Treasury  Department. 

HISSOM  ABE Treasury  Department. 

MORIKATA  OKI Treasury  Department. 

KAZOUXARI  SOUGUIYAMA Treasury  Department. 

NORIYAS  TOMITA Treasury  Department 

NAGAMASSA  Yo  lo Treasury  Department. 

KASOUMITSI  HARADA War  Department. 

NORITSOUGOU  NAGAYO Educational  Department, 

NAGAMOTO  NAKASSIMA Educational  Department. 

MASSATSNA  KONDO..' Educational  Department. 

WARO  IMAAIOURA Educational  Department. 

KIMIHIRA  OUTSIMOURA Educational  Department. 

TAKATO  O-SniA Public  Works  Department. 

FOUROU  OURIU Public  Works  Department. 

TAKE-AKIRA  NAKANO Judicial  Department. 

SIGUETOSSI  OKA-OUTSI Judicial  Department. 

YOSSIXARI  HTRAKA Judicial  Department. 

HOUMFAKIRA  NAGANO Judicial  Department. 

TSOUXEMITS  MOURATA Imperial  Court. 

YOSSINAGA  TAKATSOUZI Imperial  Court. 

HIROYAS  KAGAWA Imperial  Court. 


10  THE   JAPANESE   1^   AMERICA. 

The  formal  reception  of  the  Embassy  took  place  on  the 
day  following  their  arrival  at  San  Francisco,  and  the  kind 
wishes  of  the  citizens  and  the  hospitalities  of  the  city  were 
tendered  to  the  distinguished  strangers  by  the  Mayor,  the 
Hon.  William  Alvord.  By  special  request  of  the  Board 
of  Supervisors,  the  Mayor  was  also  requested  to  address  a 
letter  of  welcome  to  the  Embassy,  which  was  accordingly 
done  on  the  18th,  and  in  which  he  remarked  as  follows  : 
"  As  the  nearest  neighbor,  on  this  continent,  of  the  Empire 
of  Japan,  the  people  of  San  Francisco  feel  a  special  pride 
in  welcoming  you  to  our  city,  the  landing-place,  in  America, 
of  an  Embassy  whose  labors  are  doubtless  destined  to  be 
followed  by  results  in  the  highest  degree  interesting  and 
important  in  their  bearings  upon  the  progress  and  enlight 
enment  of  all  nations,  and  especially  to  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  Japan  and  the  United  States.  The  Board 
take  pleasure  in  extending  to  your  Excellencies  every 
facility  for  visiting  and  examining  our  public  institutions, 
and  cheerfully  place  at  your  disposal  all  means  of  informa 
tion,  trusting  that  your  stay  here  will  be  agreeable,  and 
that  the  great  objects  of  the  Embassy  will  be  achieved  by 
bringing  into  nearer  intimacy  the  ancient  and  modern 
civilizations,  cementing  still  closer  our  mutual  relations  of 
trade  and  commerce,  and  strengthening  the  ties  of  inter 
national  friendship."  The  Press  of  San  Francisco,  in  a 
body,  paid  their  respects  to  the  members  of  the  Embassy, 
and  were  treated  wTith  attention.  A  committee  of  citizens 
also  waited  upon  the  dignitaries,  and,  in  reply  to  an  address 
of  welcome  from  R.  B.  Swain,  President  of  the  Board  of 
Commerce,  the  Chief  Ambassador  replied,  through  an  in 
terpreter,  as  follows : 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  11 

"  GENTLEMEN  .  Being  commissioned  by  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the 
Tenno  of  Japan,  to  visit  all  the  Treaty  Powers,  we  have  reached  your  city 
on  our  way,  and  have  been  greatly  pleased  at  receiving  so  warm  a  welcome 
upon  the  threshold  of  your  Continent.  We  receive  it  thankfully,  as  a 
distinguished  honor  p'aid  to  our  sovereign  and  our  country. 

"  Commerce,  following  in  the  path  of  our  first  friendly  relation,  has  been 
an  active  agent  in  drawing  our  respective  countries  nearer  together,  in  the 
strongest  bonds  of  friendship.  Our  people  have,  by  its  means,  become 
acquainted  with  the  civilization  of  more  enlightened  nations,  and  they  now 
seek  to  advance  themselves  in  a  knowledge  of  the  arts,  sciences,  products, 
and  mechanisms  of  western  nations. 

"  The  true  spirit  of  our  mission  is  to  establish  peaceful  relations  more 
firmly,  and  to  see  how  greater  privileges  may  be  granted  in  the  true  inter 
ests  of  a  righteous  government  and  a  free  people. 

"  Our  mission  being  one  of  investigation,  we  shall  inspect  with  pleasure 
your  manufactures  and  machinery,  your  colleges  and  schools,  and  your 
system  of  justice  ;  and  as  these  are  to  become  the  guide  of  our  nation  in  the 
future,  this  study  will  be  one  tending  to  promote  our  national  welfare, 
and,  as  commerce  is  reciprocal,  may  be  of  future  direct  interest  to  your 
city. 

"  Your  kind  offer  to  share  with  us  your  acquired  knowledge,  and  ex 
hibit  to  us  your  various  industries,  we  gladly  accept,  and  shall  not  fail  to 
note  them  carefully,  and  aim  in  the  future  to  establish  with  you  active  in 
tercourse  and  practical  results. 

"  We  assure  you,  that  as  soon  as  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Tenno  of 
Japan,  is  informed,  from  our  letter,  of  your  generous  hospitality,  he  will 
undoubtedly  testify  his  eminent  satisfaction,  and  the  hearts  of  the  whole 
people  of  Japan  will  feel  deeply  grateful." 

In  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  citizens  of  San 
Francisco  gathered  around  the  Grand  Hotel  and  gave  an 
admirable  serenade,  and,  on  being  called  out  on  the  bal 
cony,  the  Chief  Ambassador,  as  before,  delivered  the  fol 
lowing  address  : 

"  CITIZENS  or  SAN  FRANCISCO  :  It  is  now  a  recognized  fact  in  Japan, 
since  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  our 
country,  that  our  true  prosperity  has  greatly  increased  with  our  new  com 
mercial  intercourse.  Our  advancement  in  the  arts  and  sciences  of  western 
nations  we  now  consider  a  substantial  benefit  to  our  nation,  and  desire 
that  with  every  increase  of  national  intercourse  there  shall  be  an  increase 
of  international  friendship.  (Cheers.) 


12  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

"  With  a  view  of  hastening  these  results,  and  further  facilitating  the  in 
struction  of  our  people  in  the  civilization  of  western  nations,  His  Imperial 
Majesty,  the  Tenno,  has  commissioned  us  to  visit  all  those  countries 
having  treaties. with  Japan,  in  the  capacity  of  Ambassadors  Plenipotentiary, 
first  visiting  your  country.  The  warmth  of  our  reception  is  unquestion 
able  proof  to  us  of  the  friendship  of  Americans,  and  I  assure  you  it  is 
more  than  echoed  in  the  hearts  of  our  people.  (Cheers.) 

"  Your  expression  of  feeling,  when  announced  to  His  Imperial  Majesty, 
will  he  made  known  throughout  Japan,  and  assist  in  cementing  a  mutual 
friendship  between  our  countries,  which  it  is  the  wish  of  the  Japanese 
people  should  constantly  increase,  as  by  intercourse  we  get  to  know  each 
other  better."  (Cheers.) 


On  the  same  day  the  Chief  Ambassador,  on  behalf  of  the 
Embassy,  sent  a  telegram  through  to  Nagasaki,  Japan, 
announcing  to  his  Government  their  safe  arrival  in  this 
city,  and  the  cordial  reception  they  had  met  with.  This 
dispatch  went  direct  to  Hongkong,  whence  it  was  trans 
mitted  by  cable  to  Nagasaki. 

He  also  sent  word  across  the  continent  to  his  three  sons, 
who  are  students  in  Rutgers  College,  Brunswick,  New 
Jersey.  An  answer  was  received  just  as  he  had  concluded 
his  first  address  to  the  American  people.  It  announced 
the  good  health  of  his  sons,  and  their  joy  at  his  safe  arrival 
in  this  country.  The  contents  and  the  occasion  combined 
to  render  him  exceedingly  happy. 

During  the  whole  of  their  stay  in  San  Francisco  the 
members  of  the  Embassy  were  treated  with  marked  kind 
ness  and  cordiality ;  but  the  great  event  of  their  visit  was 
a  superb  banquet,  which  was  given  to  them  by  the  leading 
citizens,  at  the  Grand  Hotel,  on  the  23d  of  January.  After 
the  preliminary  toasts  had  been  disposed  of,  that  of  "  Our 
Distinguished  Guests"  was  proposed,  when  the  Chief 
Ambassador  rose,  and  was  greeted  with  prolonged  ap- 


HISTORY    OF   THE   EMBASSY.  13 

planse.      He    spoke    in    his    native    tongue.      Mr.    Tadas 
Hyash  then  read  the  following  remarks  in  English  : 

"  GENTLEMEN  :  I  earnestly  desire  to  express,  on  behalf  of  the  other 
members  of  this  Embassy,  and  in  my  own  behalf,  our  warmest  thanks  for 
all  the  kind  honors  you  have  shown  us.  The  particulars  of  our  reception, 
and  the  princely  hospitality  of  your  banquet  this  evening,  will  be  sources 
of  great  gratification  to  our  Emperor  and  his  subjects. 

"  The  relative  situation  of  this  port  to  Japan  is  such  that  your  pros 
perity  will  be  the  promoter  of  our  civilization,  and  we  hope  our  progress 
will  contribute  to  enrich  your  city.  We  promise  our  best  exertions  to 
uphold  and  increase  friendly  relations  between  our  countries,  by  which,  in 
future,  we  will  have  many  mutual  interests.  The  gratitude  I  feel  for 
your  great  kindness  is  beyond  my  power  of  expression.  Governor  Ito,  one 
of  our  ambassadors,  will  respond  more  fully  in  our  behalf." 

The  Vice- Ambassador  Tto,  in  furtherance  of  the  response, 
read  the  following  words  in  a  clear  voice,  so  as  to  be  dis 
tinctly  understood  by  all  present : 

"  GENTLEMEN  :  Being  honored  by  your  kind  generosity,  I  gladly  ex 
press  to  you,  and  through  you  to  the  citizens  of  San  Francisco,  our  heart 
felt  gratitude  for  the  friendly  reception  which  has  everywhere  greeted  the 
Embassy  since  its  arrival  in  your  State,  and  especially  for  the  marked 
compliment  paid  this  evening  to  our  nation. 

"  This  is  perhaps  a  fitting  opportunity  to  give  a  brief  and  reliable  out 
line  of  many  improvements  being  introduced  into  Japan.  Few  but  native 
Japanese  have  any  correct  knowledge  of  our  country's  internal  condition. 

"  Friendly  intercourse  with  the  Treaty  Powers  has  been  maintained 
(first  among  which  was  the  United  States),  and  a  good  understanding  on 
the  part  of  our  people  has  increased  commercial  relations. 

"  Our  mission,  under  special  instruction  from  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor, 
while  seeking  to  protect  the  rights  and  interests  of  our  respective  nations, 
will  seek  to  unite  them  more  closely  in  the  future,  convinced  that  we  shall 
appreciate  each  other  more  when  we  know  each  other  better. 

"  By  reading,  hearing,  and  by  observation  in  foreign  lands,  our  people 
have  acquired  a  general  knowledge  of  constitutions,  habits,  and  manners, 
as  they  exist  in  most  foreign  countries.  Foreign  customs  are  now  gener 
ally  understood  throughout  Japan. 

"  To-day  it  is  the  earnest  wish  of  both  our  Government  and  people  to 
strive  for  the  highest  points  of  civilization  enjoyed  by  more  enlightened 
countries.  Looking  to  this  end,  we  have  adopted  their  military,  naval, 


14  THE   JAPANESE   1^   AMERICA. 

scientific,  and  educational  institutions,  and  knowledge  has  flowed  to  us 
freely  in  the  wake  of  foreign  commerce.  Although  our  improvement  has 
been  rapid  in  material  civilization,  the  mental  improvement  of  our  people 
has  been  far  greater.  Our  wisest  men,  after  careful  observation,  agree  in 
this  opinion. 

"  While  held  in  absolute  obedience  by  despotic  sovereigns  through  many 
thousand  years,  our  people  knew  no  freedom  or  liberty  of  thought. 

"  With  our  material  improvement,  they  learned  to  understand  their 
rightful  privileges,  which,  for  ages,  have  been  denied  them.  Civil  war  was 
but  a  temporary  result. 

"  Our  Daimios  magnanimously  surrendered  their  principalities,  and 
their  voluntary  action  was  accepted  by  the  General  Government.  Within  a 
year  a  feudal  system,  firmly  established  many  centuries  ago,  has  been 
completely  abolished,  without  firing  a  gun  or  shedding  a  drop  of  blood. 
These  wonderful  results  have  been  accomplished  by  the  united  action  of  a 
Government  and  people,  now  pressing  jointly  forward  in  the  peaceful 
paths  of  progress.  What  country  in  the  middle  ages  broke  down  its  feudal 
system  without  war  ? 

"  These  facts  assure  us  that  mental  changes  in  Japan  exceed  even  the 
material  improvements.  By  educating  our  women,  we  hope  to  insure 
greater  intelligence  in  future  generations.  With  this  end  in  view,  our 
maidens  have  already  commenced  to  come  to  you  for  their  education. 

"Japan  cannot  claim  originality  as  yet,  but  it  will  aim  to  exercise  practi 
cal  wisdom  by  adopting  the  advantages,  and  avoiding  the  errors,  taught 
her  by  the  history  of  those  enlightened  nations  whose  experience  is  her 
teacher. 

"  Scarcely  a  year  ago,  I  examined  minutely  the  financial  system  of  the 
United  States,  and,  while  in  Washington,  received  most  valuable  assistance 
from  distinguished  officers  of  your  Treasury  Department.  Every  detail 
learned  was  faithfully  reported  to  my  Government,  and  suggestions  then 
made  have  been  adopted,  and  some  of  them  are  now  already  in  practical 
operation. 

"  In  the  Department  of  Public  Works,  now  under  my  administration,  the 
progress  has  been  satisfactory.  Railroads  are  being  built,  both  in  the 
eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  Empire.  Telegraph  wires  are  stretch 
ing  over  many  hundred  miles  of  our  territory,  and  nearly  one  thousand 
miles  will  be  completed  within  a  few  months.  Light-houses  now  line  our 
coasts,  and  our  ship-yards  are  active.  All  these  assist  our  civilization,  and 
we  fully  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  you  and  other  foreign  nations. 

"  As  Ambassadors  and  as  men,  our  gi-catest  hope  is  to  return  from  this 
mission  laden  with  results — valuable  to  our  beloved  country  and  calcula 
ted  to  advance  permanently  her  material  and  intellectual  condition. 

"  While  in  duty  bound  to  protect  the  rights  and  privileges  of  our  people, 


IIISTOHY   OF  THE   EMBASSY.  15 

we  shall  aim  to  increase  our  commerce,  and,  by  a  corresponding  increase 
of  our  productions,  hope  to  create  a  healthy  basis  for  this  greater  activity. 

"As  distinguished  citizens  of  a  great  commercial  nation,  prepared  for 
business,  desirous  of  participating  in  the  new  commercial  era  now  dawning 
auspiciously  upon  the  Pacific,  Japan  offers  you  her  hearty  co  operation. 

"  Your  modern  inventions  and  results  of  accumulated  knowledge,  enable 
you  to  do  more  in  days  than  our  fathers  accomplished  in  years. 

"  Time,  so  condensed  with  precious  opportunities,  we  can  ill  afford  to 
waste.  Japan  is  anxious  to  press  forward. 

"  The  red  disk  in  the  centre  of  our  national  flag  shall  no  longer  appear 
like  a  wafer  over  a  sealed  empire,  but  henceforth  be  in  fact  what  it  is 
designed  to  be,  the  noble  emblem  of  the  rising  sun,  moving  onward  and 
upward  amid  the  enlightened  nations  of  the  world." 

Tliis  response  was  repeatedly  interrupted  by  applause 
and  cheers,  and  when  he  sat  down  the  clapping  of  hands 
was  deafening. 

The  next  toast,  "  Our  Relations  with  Japan,"  was 
responded  to  by  Hon.  C.  E.  DeLong.  His  remarks  were  as 
follows : 

"  GENTLEMEN  :  The  toast  that  I  am  called  upon  to  respond  to  is  one 
about  which  I  would  most  love  to  speak  with  freedom,  but  it  is  at  the  same 
time  the  one  of  all  other  subjects  that  I,  as  American  Representative  to 
the  Empire  of  Japan,  am  least  at  liberty  to  discuss. 

"  I  will  venture  a  few  words,  however,  in  the  hope  of  not  transgressing 
my  instructions,  and  yet,  in  part,  responding  to  your  call. 

"  What  were  our  relations  with  that  Empire  in  the  past  and  what  are 
they  now  ?  No  intelligent  Japanese  or  American  can  ever  hear  the  name  of 
Commodore  Perry  mentioned  with  indifference.  His  gallantry  first  bore 
down  the  outer  walls  of  seclusion  that  h^d  walled  that  Empire  in  from  any 
but  the  most  limited  communication  with  other  powers,  for  unknown  cen 
turies  of  time.  Under  his  auspices  the  foothold  was  gained  which  is  rev 
olutionizing  that  land. 

"  To  day  what  do  we  behold  ? 

"  Under  the  wise  administration  of  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Tenno,  we 
see  thirty  odd  millions  of  people  marching  at  a  '  double-quick '  into  full 
fellowship  with  foreign  states. 

"  The  reign  of  his  Majesty,  signalized  by  its  enlightenment,  must  make 
its  own  history  forever  illustrious.  In  this  noble  and  unprecedented  work 
of  reform  it  is  but  proper  to  add  that  his  Majesty  finds  most  able  and  effec- 


16  THE   JAPANESE   IX   AMERICA. 

tual  support  from  the  counsel  of  the  noble  Ministers  of  the  Empire,  some 
of  whom  it  is  our  good  fortune  to  be  able  to  meet  and  honor  in  our  land. 

"  The  mighty  change,  from  our  relations  as  they  were  to  our  relations 
as  they  are,  is  so  sudden,  so  complete,  so  very  wonderful  as  to  be  bewilder 
ing. 

"  Allow  me  to  note  a  few  of  the  prominent  landmarks  in  this  road  of 
reform  upon  which  this  nation  is  travelling.  The  Japanese  Government 
has  been  centralized  by  the  abolishment  of  Daimiates,  thus  resolving  its 
political  condition  from  one  of  numberless  and  comparatively  small  princi 
palities  into  a  consolidated  nation  of  over  thirty  millions  of  people,  con 
taining  over  two  millions  of  men  born  to  the  profession  of  arms, — men 
whose  martial  valor  none  who  knows  them  doubts,  and  who  are  rapidly 
being  armed,  uniformed,  and  drilled  with  the  best  of  arms,  under  the  tui 
tion  of  the  best  of  foreign  military  teachers. 

"  But  the  other  day  his  Majesty  received  his  fleet  of  ten  steam-vessels  of 
war,  including  two  powerful  iron-dads,  and  in  a  few  davs  a  flying  squadron, 
composed  of  three  of  his  Majesty's  vessels  of  war,  will  sail  to  circumnavi 
gate  the  globe. 

"  A  railroad  completed  and  in  running  order,  from  Yeddo  to  Yokohama, 
conveyed  these  gentlemen,  our  noble  guests,  on  the  commencement  of  their 
journey. 

"  Telegraph  lines  in  working  order,  operated  by  Japanese  operatives,  are 
already  constructed,  and  more  contemplated. 

"  Light-houses  and  light-ships  have  been  constructed  at  all  necessary 
points  along  the  Japanese  coast,  where  well-kept  beacons  guide  and  wel 
come  commerce  in  safety  to  their  ports. 

"An  Imperial  Mint,  complete  in  all  of  its  appointments,  has  coined  mil 
lions  of  dollars  of  the  precious  metals,  and  is  still  in  active  operation. 

"  A  dry-dock  has  been  constructed  in  which,  but  the  other  day,  one  of  the 
lai'gest  of  our  vessels  of  war,  the  flagship  Colorado,  was  docked  with  all  of 
her  guns  in  position,  and  repairs  to  her  bottom  most  successfully  made. 

"  Hundreds  of  the  young  nobility  of  Japan  are  being  educated  in  our  own 
country  and  in  Europe.  A  college,  numerously  attended,  is  in  full  opera 
tion  in  Yeddo,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  American  gentleman,  assisted 
by  European  and  American  subordinates. 

"  Private  schools  are  numerous  throughout  the  Empire,  conducted  by 
foreigners,  and  with  me  come  five  Japanese  ladies,  seeking  foreign  culture, 
and  marking  by  their  advent  the  promise  of  a  most  noble  reform. 

"  Thus  I  might  proceed,  and  enumerate,  at  a  great  length,  the  evidences 
of  this  nation's  progress,  but  I  feel  that  more  extended  allusions  are  not 
necessary  in  the  face  of  the  one  great  fact  that  meets  us  here,  face  to  face  to 
night,  in  the  presence  of  this  noble  array  of  Japanese  dignitaries,  represent 
ing,  as  they  do,  not  only  all  departments  of  that  Government,  but  the  dig- 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  17 

nity  of  the  throne  itself — a  throne  which  but  yesterday,  as  it  were,  was  one 
of  the  most  secluded  and  mysterious  on  earth. 

"  Who  of  you  all,  gentlemen,  can  fail  to  see  in  this  sight  the  harbinger  of 
greater  events  still  to  follow,  that  shall  place  Japan,  in  a  very  brief  future, 
in  complete  alignment  with  the  most  advanced  nations  of  the  earth  ?  We 
are  proud  of  the  past,  proud  of  the  present,  and  confident  of  the  future. 
In  this  spirit  I  am  sure  the  whole  heart  of  the  American  nation  will 
leap  up  to  welcome  the  noble  Ambassadors  of  our  sister  nation." 

The  advent  of  the  Embassy  on  American  soil  called 
forth  a  large  number  of  hearty  editorials  of  welcome  in 
the  San  Francisco  papers,  but  the  most  satisfactory  one, 
on  account  of  its  authentic  facts,  appeared  in  the  Daily 
Evening  Bulletin  •  and  no  apology  is  needed  for  intro 
ducing  a  portion  of  it  in  this  place. 

"Japan  is  to-day,  all  the  circumstances  of  her  previous 
condition  considered,  the  most  progressive  nation  on  the 
globe.  Less  than  twenty  years  have  elapsed  since  the  first 
treaty  was  made  by  Perry  in  1854,  for  harbors  of  refuge 
for  shipwrecked  seamen  and  supplies  for  vessels  in  distress, 
and  still  less  since  the  treaty  was  made  by  Minister  Harris 
for  purposes  of  trade.  Prior  to  the  period  named,  the 
penalty  of  death  was  visited  upon  Japanese  who  had  had 
intercourse  with  foreigners,  and  trade  was  simply  impossi 
ble.  The'  government  of  the  empire  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
number  of  Princes,  or  Daimios,  who  nominally  ruled  in  the 
name  of  the  Mikado,  but  practically  in  their  own  right. 
Each  Daimio  had  his  armed  retainers,  wrho  wore  the  uni 
forms  and  marched  under  the  distinctive  banners  of  their 
chief.  The  Mikado  was  termed  the  spiritual  Emperor,  and 
had  his  own  court  at  Kioto  ;  while  the  Shogoon,  or  Tycoon, 
which  title  was  hereditary  in  the  Tokagawa  family,  exer 
cised  temporal  authority  at  Yeddo,  under  the  Gorogio,  or 
Council  of  State,  composed  of  some  of  the  Daimios  of 


18  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

highest  rank.  The  distinctions  of  caste  were  rigorously 
enforced,  and  feudalism,  in  its  most  ultra  form,  was  pre 
valent  throughout  the  empire.  This  state  of  things  pre 
vailed  less  than  twenty  years  ago,  since  when  more  radical 
changes  have  taken  place  than  in  any  other  country 
known. 

"  Among  the  principal  changes,  there  has  been  an  entire 
revolution  in  the  system  of  government,  the  Mikado  hav 
ing  become  the  active  head  of  the  temporal  power.  The 
entire  system  of  feudalism  has  been  swept  away,  and  all 
the  forces  of  the  empire,  both  on  land  and  sea,  have  been 
consolidated,  and  are  fed  and  clothed  in  European  style, 
and  paid  from  the  national  treasury.  The  Government 
possesses  a  large  fleet  of  war  and  transport  steamers, 
among  which  are  the  Stonewall,  and  other  iron-clads  and 
rams.  It  also  has  constructed  a  stone  dry-dock  that  will 
admit  steamers  of  the  largest  size,  with  ways  for  repairing 
smaller  vessels,  and  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  forges, 
capable  of  doing  the  largest  class  of  work,  the  machinery 
used  being  the  best  obtainable  in  France,  at  a  cost  of  over 
two  million  dollars.  This  establishment  gives  employment 
to  eighteen  hundred  men,  about  a  score  of  them  being 
foreigners  and  the  remainder  Japanese.  The  government 
is  also  building  a  railroad,  which,  when  completed,  will 
extend  from  Hiogo  to  Yeddo,  a  distance  of  about  four 
hundred  miles. 

"  The  government  schools  at  Yeddo  contain  about  six 
teen  hundred  pupils,  studying  foreign  languages,  three- 
fourths  of  whom  are  under  American  teachers,  receiving 
an  English  education.  The  principal  of  this  school  and 
some  twenty  sub-teachers  are  Americans,  while  many  sub- 


HISTORY   OF   THE   EMBASSY.  19 

Jects  of  other  nations  are  employed  in  different  capacities 
in  other  departments.  An  American  fills  the  highest  office 
that  a  foreigner  can  hold  under  the  Japanese  Government 
— that  is,  Imperial  Councillor,  whose  duty  is  to  frame 
codes  of  general  laws  for  the  empire.  Four  Americans 
compose  a  scientific  commission,  to  introduce  new  methods 
of  agriculture,  mechanics,  mining,  roads,  etc.,  while  another 
American  has  been  appointed  to  revise  and  organize  a 
system  of  internal  revenue  somewhat  similar  to  our  own. 
In  addition,  during  the  last  four  years,  nearly  one  thou 
sand  young  men  of  intelligence  and  ability  have  been  sent 
abroad  to  study  the  languages,  laws,  habits,  manufactures, 
methods  of  government,  and  all  other  matters  appertaining 
to  western  civilization,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  to  be 
introduced  into  Japan. 

"  Japan,  to-day,  has  a  population  of  thirty-five  millions, 
or  within  a  few  millions  of  that  of  the  United  States. 
Unlike  the  Chinese,  its  people  readily  make  changes  in 
clothing,  food,  manufactures,  and  modes  of  living,  when 
they  see  improvement  therein.  They  are,  as  a  race,  impul 
sive,  highly  intelligent,  brave  to  rashness,  cleanly  in  their 
habits,  have  a  high  sense  of  personal  honor,  and  are  uni 
versally  polite,  from  the  highest  dignitary  to  the  lowest 
in  the  land,  and  withal  are  kindly  disposed  toward  foreign 
ers,  especially  Americans.  Unlike  the  Chinese,  again,  the 
people  of  Japan  are  warmly  attached  to  their  country,  and 
will  not  emigrate  on  Coolie  contracts,  the  thirst  for  knowl 
edge  being  the  incentive  of  those  who  seek  foreign  lands. 
A  Japanese  who  can  speak  and  write  foreign  languages, 
the  English  in  particular,  is  assured  of  profitable  employ 
ment  under  his  Government,  with  favorable  prospects  of 


20  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

promotion.  The  law  that  forbade  marriages  between  the 
noble  and  the  common  classes  has  been  repealed,  with  the 
effect  to  elevate  the  marriage  ties,  by  improving  the  moral 
and  social  status  of  woman.  The  barriers  of  caste  that  al 
lowed  nobles  only  to  bear  arms,  or  to  hold  military  or  civic 
office,  have  been  modified  so  that  all  classes,  except  the  tan 
ners,  whose  occupation  is  deemed  unclean,  are  now  eligible. 

"Another  important  change  made  has  been  the  withdrawal 
of  Government  assistance  to  the  Buddhist  religion,  leaving 
it  to  continue  only  through  the  voluntary  support  of  the 
people.  The  priests,  having  no  income,  have  been  advised 
by  the  Government  to  enter  the  army  as  soldiers,  so  that 
Sintooism,  which  is  only  a  moral  code,  is  all  the  religion 
left  for  the  guidance  of  the  people.  This  circumstance 
seems  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  Christian 
ity,  for  it  is  now  well-known  that  the  repressive  measures 
taken  by  the  Japanese  Government  against  it,  were  mainly 
caused  by  its  interference  with  the  temporal  authority. 
The  Embassy  that  is  about  to  visit  the  United  States  and 
Europe,  will  see  for  themselves  that  Christianity  does  not 
necessarily  interfere  with  good  government,  either  repub 
lican  or  monarchical;  and  the  young  men  studying  abroad, 
on  their  return  will  take  with  them  additional  proof  of  this, 
and  perhaps  themselves  be  the  means  of  introducing  the 
belief  in  many  places  where  no  foreign  missionary  could 
reach.  It  needs  only  that  patience  and  forbearance  be  ex 
ercised  by  foreigners  in  this  matter,  so  as  not  to  excite 
undue  anxiety  in  the  minds  of  the  opponents  of  Christianity, 
to  insure  for  it  the  same  tolerant  recognition  which  is  ac 
corded  all  religions  in  America. 

"  The  present  situation  of  Japan  appeals  strongly  to  all 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  21 

well-wishers  to  the  race,  that  no  impediments  nor  difficulty, 
either  social,  moral,  political,  or  religious,  be  placed  in  the 
way  of  her  progress.  We  need  only  show  her  people  the 
effects  of  western  civilization,  in  a  kindly  and  courteous 
spirit,  without  needlessly  exciting  prejudices  in  so  doing. 
The  natural  intelligence  of  the  Japanese,  which  has  no 
superior,  will  satisfy  itself,  and  work  out  the  problem  of 
what  to  introduce  in  their  own  country,  to  a  conclusion 
satisfactory  to  all  concerned." 

Before  leaving  the  Pacific  coast,  an  incident  occurred 
which  must  not  be  omitted  in  this  place.  Charles  Wolcott 
Brooks,  Esq.,  the  Japanese  Consul  in  San  Francisco,  was 
officially  informed  by  the  Ministers,  that  his  administration 
of  their  affairs  had  been  so  faithful,  his  salary  should  be  in 
creased  to  the  extent  of  two  thousand  of  Mexican  dollars, 
and  that  they  were  anxious  to  have  him  accompany  them 
on  their  mission  to  Europe, — so  that  he  thus  became  a 
member  of  the  Embassy.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
Embassy  is  accredited  to  all  the  Treaty  Powers,  it  might 
seem  strange  to  some  that  an  American  was  selected  to 
accompany  the  mission,  but  it  should  be  recollected  that 
Mr.  Brooks  had  been  eighteen  years  in  the  employ  of  the 
Japanese  Government,  six  years  as  commercial  agent,  and 
twelve  years  as  Consul. 

The  very  last  act  performed  by  the  Embassy  in  San 
Francisco,  was  to  sign  and  cause  to  be  published  the  fol 
lowing  card  of  acknowledgment — which  was  signed- by  all 
the  Ambassadors : 

"  The  undersigned,  since  their  arrival  in  the  city  of  San 
Francisco,  having  received  from  the  officials  of  the  State, 
city,  and  county  alike,  and  also  from  all  classes  of  the  peo- 


22  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

pie  with  whom  they  have  the  honor  to  come  in  contact, 
the  most  kind  attention  and  generous  hospitality,  beg  leave 
respectfully  to  return  their  most  sincere  thanks,  with  their 
assurances  that  it  will  afford  them  great  pleasure  to  recip 
rocate  the  same  whenever  opportunity  offers." 

The  Embassy  left  San  Francisco  by  railway  on  the  31st 
of  January,  and  their  first  stopping-place  was  Sacramento, 
where  they  became  the  guests  of  the  Legislature,  arid  on 
the  evening  of  February  1st  were  treated  to  a  banquet, 
on  which  occasion  Governor  Ito  delivered  the  following 
speech  : 

"  In  acknowledging  the  generous  hospitality  of  your  welcome,  we  feel 
from  the  depths  of  grateful  hearts  the  honor  conferred  upon  us.  His  Ma 
jesty  our  Emperor  having  the  noble  desire  to  increase  our  prosperity  and 
extend  our  commercial  relations  with  friendly  powers,  has  sent  us  to  your 
country  on  this  important  mission.  Our  people  require  much  that  you  can 
furnish  us,  and  we  shall  look  largely  to  our  nearest  enlightened  neighbors 
for  those  supplies  of  which  we  stand  in  need.  The  object  of  our  mission 
is  to  inspect  and  examine  into  the  various  mechanic  arts  and  sciences  which 
have  assisted  your  country  in  gaining  the  present  high  position  she  occu 
pies  before  the  world.  We  come  to  study  your  strength,  that,  by  adopting 
wisely  your  better  ways,  we  may  hereafter  be  stronger  ourselves.  We  shall 
require  your  mechanics  to  teach  our  people  many  things,  and  the  more 
our  intercourse  increases  the  more  we  shall  call  upon  you.  We  shall  labor 
to  place  Japan  on  an  equal  basis,  in  the  future,  with  those  countries  whose 
modern  civilization  is  now  our  guide.  The  friendly  intercourse  of  com 
merce  will  necessarily  draw  us  closer  together,  and  the  State  of  California 
will  be  among  the  first  to  receive  such  benefits  as  must  necessarily  flow 
from  more  intimate  relations.  Notwithstanding  the  various  customs, 
manners,  and  institutions  of  the  different  nations,  we  are  all  members 
of  one  large  human  family,  and  under  control  of  the  same  Almighty 
Being,  and  we  believe  it  is  our  common  destiny  to  reach  a  yet  nobler  civil 
ization  than  the  world  has  yet  seen.  Now,  I  am  sure  that  you  are  the 
advocates  of  these  principles  ;  and  these  hospitalities,  so  generously  offered, 
we  receive  as  a  compliment  to  our  nation,  and  as  the  public  expression  of 
these  magnanimous  sentiments.  With  thankful  hearts,  therefore,  let  us 
drink  to  a  closer  friendship  between  our  countries — one  whose  benefits  shall 
be  mutual  and  lasting." 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  23 

The  Embassy  left  Sacramento  on  the  31st  of  January; 
and,  on  reaching  Salt  Lake  City  on  the  4th  of  February, 
the}  were  blockaded  by  the  snow,  and  compelled  to  remain 
at  that  place  until  the  21st  of  February.  During  their  so 
journ  there  they  were  comfortably  housed,  and  were  treated 
with  great  kindness  by  the  authorities  and  citizens.  A 
banquet  was  given  to  the  Embassy  in  that  place,  and  a 
toast  was  offered  by  the  Chief  Ambassador  in  the  follow 
ing  words :  "  On  this,  the  first  day  of  the  fifth  year  of  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor,  I  propose  the  health  of  the  President 
of  the  United  States."  Of  course,  in  this  connection  we 
must  allude  to  the  famous  Mormon  leader,  Brigam  Young, 
but  this  we  do  in  the  language  of  one  of  the  local  papers,  as 
follows : 

"  One  of  the  principal  members  of  the  Japanese  Embassy 
was  waited  upon  yesterday  by  a  messenger  from  the 
'Prophet  Brigham,'  requesting  the  Oriental  Prince  to 
call  on  the  Western  Prophet.  His  Highness  remarked 
that  it  was  not  etiquette  in  Japan  for  persons  of  his  rank, 
when  among  strangers,  to  make  calls,  but  awaited  the  calls 
of  people  among  whom  they  may  be  sojourning. 

"  The  Prophet's  messenger  replied  that  the  Seer  and  Rev 
el  ator  was  very  anxious  to  see  the  representatives  of  His 
Majesty,  but  was  sorry  to  admit  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  do  so  immediately.  The  Royal  Ambassador  in 
quired  why  the  Prophet  could  not  call  ?  To  this  the  mes 
senger  replied  that  the  Prophet  was  unwillingly  confined 
to  his  room  in  charge  of  a  Federal  officer.  The  Prince  saw 
the  point  at  once,  and,  with  a  frown,  said  :  '  We  came  to 
the  United  States  to  see  the  President  of  this  great  nation ; 
we  do  not  know  how  he  would  like  for  us  to  call  on  a  man 


24  THE   JAPANESE   Itf  AMERICA. 

who  had  broken  the  laws  of  his  country  and  was  under 
arrest.' " 

Their  next  stopping-place  was  Chicago,  where  they  re 
mained  less  than  two  days,  and  were  treated  with  warm 
hospitality;  and  that  visit  they  commemorated  by  pre 
senting  to  the  Mayor  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  poor  of  that  lately  devastated  city. 

The  correspondence  on  that  occasion  was  as  follows : 

"  SECKETAKY'S  OFFICE  OF  THE          ^ 

JAPANESE  EMBASSY,  I 

"  CHICAGO,  Feb.  27,  1872.       J 

"  To  His  Excellency  J.  Medill,  Mayor  of  the  City  of 
Chicago  : 

"  SIR  :  Permit  us  to  add  a  small  offering  to  the  relief  fund 
which  the  benevolent  of  your  nation  have  donated  to  alle 
viate  the  distress  of  those  of  your  people  who  suffered  by 
the  late  fire.  Kindly  accept  and  dispose  of  it  as  your  best 
judgment  may  dictate.  With  many  thanks  for  your  kind 
civilities,  we  remain  yours  respectfully, 
"  Sionii  TOMOMI  IWAKUEA, 

Ambassador  Extraordinary  of  Japan. 
Jussammi  TAKAYOSSI  KIDO, 

Vice- Ambassador  Extraordinary. 
Jussammi  TOSSIMITSI  OKUBO, 

Vice- Ambassador  Extraordinary. 
Jushie  HIKOBUMIE  ITO, 

Vice- Ambassador  Extraordinary. 
Jushie  MASSONKA  YAMAGUTSI, 

Vice- A mbassador  Extraordinary" 

His  honor  returned  the  following  reply : 


HISTORY   OF   THE   EMBASSY.  25 

"  To  tiionii  Tomomi  IwaJcura,  Jussammi  Takayossi  Ki- 
do,  and  others,  of  the  Japanese  Embassy  : 

"  GENTLEMEX  :  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  re 
ceipt  of  $5,000  from  the  Embassy  of  His  Imperial  Majesty, 
of  which  you  are  the  Chief  Envoys,  at  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Charles  W.  Brooks,  Consul  of  Japan  at  San  Francisco, 
donated  to  alleviate  the  distress  of  our  citizens  who  suffered, 
by  the  late  calamitous  conflagration.  Permit  me,  in  behalf 
of  the  people  of  Chicago,  to  tender  you  their  most  grateful 
thanks  for  this  wholly  unexpected  and  munificent  gift. 
They  will  esteem  it  as  an  additional  proof  that  the  great 
nation  you  represent  has  enrolled  itself  among  the  pro 
gressive  and  civilized  powers  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  a 
lively  testimonial  of  the  personal  sympathy  of  your  Em 
bassy  for  the  misfortune  of  this  portion  of  your  American 
friends.  Respectfully  yours, 

"  JOSEPH  MEDILL,  Mayor" 

They  left  Chicago  on  the  27th  of  February  and  arrived 
in  Washington  on  the  29th  following. 

At  this  point  it  becomes  necessary  for  us  to  pause  for  a 
moment,  to  glance  at  the  action  of  the  Government,  in 
connection  with  the  Embassy.  On  the  30th  of  January 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States  made  an  appropriation 
of  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  the  purpose  of  entertaining  the 
Embassy  while  in  this  country,  and  on  the  next  day  Mr. 
Mori  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  State  as  follows :  "  In  view 
of  the  action  which  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  has 
been  pleased  to  take  in  regard  to  the  Japanese  Embassy, 
now  on  its  way  to  the  Capital,  I  deem  it  my  duty,  as  it  is 
certainly  my  pleasure,  to  tender  my  personal  and  official 
acknowledgments.  It  is  not  on  account  of  the  amount  of 

2 


26  THE   JAPANESE    IX   AMERICA. 

money  appropriated,  but  the  spirit  which  prompted  the 
measure,  which  will  gratify  the  Tenno  of  Japan,  and  my 
countrymen  generally.  I  can  assure  you,  sir,  that  this 
princely  act  will  be  fully  appreciated,  and  will  result,  I 
trust,  in  making  perennial  the  cordial  friendship  which 
now  exists  between  the  United  States  and  the  Empire  of 
Japan." 

In  a  subsequent  dispatch  which  Mr.  Mori  sent  to  his 
Government  on  the  18th  of  February,  he  thus  alludes  to  the 
action  of  the  American  Government,  and  gives  his  views 
as  to  how  the  money  appropriated  by  Congress  should  be 
spent:  "Owing  to  the  'snow  blockade'  on  the  Pacific 
Railroad,  the  Embassy  has  not  yet  arrived  in  Washington, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  long  the  delay  may  con 
tinue.  It  affords  me  pleasure  to  inform  you,  however,  that 
the  Government  here  has  made  every  preparation  for  ex 
tending  a  warm  welcome  to  the  Embassy.  The  President 
and  Secretary  of  State  have  both  exerted  themselves  in 
the  matter,  and  a  prominent  person,  General  William 
Myers,  has  been  selected  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the 
Government.  .  .  .  With  regard  to  the  question  as 
to  how  the  money  appropriated  by  Congress  shall  be  ex 
pended,  I  have  intimated  to  the  American  Secretary  of 
State,  that  it  should  not  be  used  in  paying  the  hotel-bills 
of  the  Embassy,  but  simply  for  carrying  out  any  plans 
that  may  be  devised  for  their  entertainment." 

The  appropriation  made  by  Congress  was  sanctioned 
with  great  unanimity ;  but  before  their  final  action,  the 
honorable  Members  of  the  Committees  of  both  Houses, 
on  Foreign  Affairs  and  Appropriations,  desired  some  au 
thentic  particulars  about  the  present  condition  of  Japan, 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  27 

when,  under  Mr.  Mori's  direction,  the  following  notes  were 
prepared : 

The  influences  which  have  been  disseminated  among  the 
nations  of  the  East  by  the  various  interests  of  the  west 
ern  nations,  have  hitherto  been  injurious  rather  than  bene 
ficial.  The  people  of  Japan,  as  well  as  all  in  the  Orient, 
feel  the  need  of  increased  light  in  regard  to  the  more  ele 
vated  interests  of  humanity ;  and  this  is  the  chief  reason 
why  Mr.  Mori  cherishes  a  strong  desire  to  do  all  he  can  for 
the  education  of  his  people. 

The  influences  alluded  to  have  also  done  much  to  keep 
back  from  the  people  of  Japan  very  much  of  that  true 
spirit  of  civilization,  so  eminently  characteristic  of  Amer 
ica.  And  the  fact  seems  now  to  be  generally  acknowl 
edged  that  the  Japanese  people  not  only  desire  to  follow, 
as  far  as  possible,  in  all  educational  and  political  affairs, 
the  example  of  the  Americans,  but  that  they  look  upon 
them  as  their  best  friends,  among  the  nations  of  the  globe. 
A  prominent  idea  with  the  educated  classes  of  Japan  is, 
that  in  the  very  ship  which  took  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry 
to  Japan  in  1852,  were  the  germs  of  Christianity,  civiliza 
tion,  and  desire  for  equality  and  political  freedom,  and 
that  the  seed  then  planted  has  been  steadily  growing  from 
that  to  the  present  time. 

At  first,  the  Japanese  were,  from  their  ignorance  of  the 
outer  world,  unwilling  to  open  their  ports  to  foreigners,  or 
to  receive  them  in  their  country;  but  as  they  began  to 
see  and  understand,  they  gradually  yielded  up  their  preju 
dices.  A  new  spirit  animated  them,  and  it  was  this  which 
brought  them  to  the  Revolution  from  which  they  have 
recently  emerged. 


28  THE   JAPANESE    IX   AMERICA. 

The  first  concession  made  by  the  Japanese  was  an  ac 
knowledgment  of  the  darkness  in  which  they  were,  and  of 
the  superior  character  of  foreign  institutions;  and  the  im 
mediate  result  was  that  they  desired  to  cement  a  closer 
friendship  with  foreign  governments.  They  naturally 
looked  upon  the  United  States  as  occupying  the  first 
rank.  Then  they  also  wished  to  consolidate  the  various 
internal  interests  of  Japan. 

The  late  Tycoon  was  favorably  disposed,  but,  not  being 
the  legitimate  head  of  the  nation,  the  people  were  against 
him,  did  not  support  him,  and  hence  he  was  powerless, 
and  in  due  time  resigned  the  Tycoonite.  He  was  not  the 
supreme  ruler,  because  that  position  belonged  to  the  he 
reditary  Emperor. 

The  great  party  which  opposed  the  Tycoon  consisted 
of  the  Daimios — the  Feudal  or  Provincial  Princes — and  a 
bitter  rivalry  existed  between  them.  Both  were  willing 
to  civilize  Japan  to  some  extent,  but  the  Tycoon  wished 
to  civilize  his  followers  alone,  and  the  Daimios  were  anx 
ious  to  secure  the  same  end  for  their  followers.  While 
thus  interfering  with  each  other,  both  of  these  parties 
were,  in  reality,  coming  into  a  new  light.  They  soon  saw 
the  necessity  of  uniting  their  interests,  and  the  present 
movements  now  going  on  in  Japan  are  the  result  of  the 
co-operation  of  these  two  elements. 

To  help  his  cause,  the  Tycoon  sent  students  abroad  to 
be  educated;  and  the  Daimios,  with  the  same  object  in 
view,  also  sent  some  of  their  followers  abroad.  Hence  it 
was  that  the  Japanese  were  soon  found  scattered  among 
the  colleges  and  seminaries  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe,  and  representatives  of  both  parties — long  since 


HISTORY   OF   THfi   EMBASSY.  29 

reconciled — are  now  in  Washington.  Originally,  there 
were  leaders  in  both  parties  who  looked  into  the  future, 
and  did  all  they  could  to  secure  unity  of  action,  and  it  was 
the  late  Revolution  which  settled  the  question  of  consoli 
dation. 

Ever  since  the  Japanese  began  to  throw  aside  the  old 
restrictions,  commerce  has  been  steadily  increasing,  and 
the  present  disposition  of  the  Government  is  to  have  the 
freest  possible  intercourse  with  all  the  world.  It  was  the 
great  ignorance  which  prevailed  among  the  people  of 
Japan,  which  prevented  the  development  of  commerce. 
The  channel  is  now  open,  and  all  that  is  wanted  is  to 
have  the  people  sail  into  it  with  determination. 

The  great  aim  is  now  to  educate  and  elevate  the  people. 
The  system  of  caste  has  already  been  abolished.  The 
middle  classes,  which  were  formerly  kept  back  by  heredi 
tary  pride,  are  now  turning  their  attention  and  energies  to 
industrial  pursuits.  Among  the  developments  which  are 
now  going  on  in  Japan,  may  be  mentioned  the  building  of 
railroads,  the  establishment  of  telegraphs,  navy-yards, 
arsenals,  and  the  building  of  steamships.  By  competent 
scholars,  English  books,  in  great  numbers,  are  being  trans 
lated  into  the  Japanese  language  ;  and  newspapers — even 
daily  journals — are  becoming  a  necessity.  Hospitals 
managed  according  to  Western  ideas  have  been  estab 
lished  ;  also,  institutions  for  the  employment  of  the  poor, 
and  many  successful  schools.  And,  by  way  of  showing  the 
zeal  of  some  of  the  native  scholars,  it  may  be  stated  that 
there  is  one  man  in  Yeddo  who  has  educated  at  his  own 
house  not  less  than  two  thousand  Japanese  children,  and 
to-day  has  a  school  o  three  hundred  and  fifty  pupils. 


30  THE   JAPANESE    Itf   AMERICA. 

The  intelligent  people  of  the  Empire  are  hungering  and 
thirsting  after  knowledge,  and  the  study  of  the  English 
language  is  considered  the  best  means  for  accomplishing 
the  end  which  is  so  strongly  desired. 

On  the  29th  of  February,  the  Japanese  Embassy  arrived 
in  Washington  City;  and  at  the  railway  station,  the 
Governor  of  the  Territory  of  Columbia,  Hon.  Henry  D. 
Cooke,  with  several  officials,  as  well  as  the  Japanese  Minister 
and  many  Japanese  students,  were  in  waiting  to  receive 
them  ;  and  after  the  proper  arrangements  had  been  made, 
the  Governor  delivered  the  following  speech  of  welcome: 

"  I  take  very  great  pleasure  in  extending  to  you  and  your  associates  a 
hearty  and  sincere  welcome  to  the  capital  of  this  country.  I  trust  that 
your  visit  here  may  not  only  be  agreeable  to  you  personally,  but  that  it 
may  result  in  closer  ties  and  more  intimate  relations  between  our  two 
countries.  I  extend  to  you,  on  behalf  of  the  citizens  of  the  District, 
its  cordial  hospitalities.  I  have  now  the  pleasure  of  introducing  to  you 
General  Myers,  of  the  army,  who  has  been  intrusted  with  the  pleasant 
duty  of  providing  for  your  comfort  during  your  visit ;  and  I  beg  also  to 
present  General  Chipman,  the  Representative  of  this  District  in  the  Con 
gress  of  the  United  States." 

The  address  was  interpreted  by  Mr.  Mori,  to  which  the 
following  response  was  made  by  the  Chief  Ambassador 
(Mr.  Mori  interpreting)  : 

"  I  thank  you  kindly  for  your  remarks  and  expressions,  and  have  no 
doubt  but  the  sentiments  expressed  will  be  appreciated  and  reciprocated. 
I  am  very  glad  at  having  arrived  safe,  and  having  met  with  no  accident. 
I  have  been  informed  by  Mr.  Mori  that  you  have  been  here  some  time 
awaiting  our  arrival.  I  thank  you  very  much  for  taking  this  trouble,  and 
feel  very  much  impressed  by  this  reception." 

The  preliminaries  of  the  reception  and  formal  welcome 
over,  the  visitors  were  escorted  to  carnages,  and  proceeded 
to  their  headquarters,  at  the  Arlington  Hotel.  Among 


HISTOHY    OF   THE   EMBASSY.  31 

the  students  assembled  to  greet  the  ambassadors  were 
three  particularly  good  English  scholars,  who  were  in 
Paris,  and  two  of  whom  were  about  to  return  to  Japan, 
when  they  were  summoned  by  telegram  from  San  Fran 
cisco,  to  report  themselves  in  Washington,  to  accompany 
the  Embassy  in  their  going  round  the  world. 

On  Monday,  the  4th  day  of  March,  at  noon,  the  Embassy 
had  an  audience  with  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  which  was  admirably  arranged.;  and 
when  the  proper  moment  arrived,  the  Prime  Minister  read 
from  a  Japanese  manuscript  the  following  address  of  their 
Excellencies,  the  Ambassadors  from  Japan  : 

"  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  our  most  august  sovereign,  has 
sought,  since  the  achievement  of  our  national  reconstruction,  to  attain  a 
more  perfect  organization  in  the  administrative  powers  of  his  Government. 
He  has  studied  with  interest  the  results  attained  by  Western  nations,  and 
having  a  sincere  desire  to  establish  permanent  and  friendly  relations  with 
foreign  powers  on  a  still  closer  footing,  has  commissioned  us  his  ambas 
sadors  extraordinary  to  all  powers  having  treaty  with  Japan.  Upon  the 
soil  of  your  country  we  first  present  our  credentials,  delivering  to  you 
personally  the  letter  of  our  august  sovereign  at  this  public  official 
audience." 

Minister  Iwakura  here  presented  to  the  President  their 
credential  letter,  folded  in  an  envelope  some  two  feet  long 
and  six  inches  wide,  and  curiously  wrought  with  flowers 
of  gold.  The  following  is  the  text  of  the  letter 

THE  LETTER  OF  THE  EMPEROR. 

[Official  Translation.] 
"  MOUTSOUKITO,  EMPEROR  OF  JAPAN,  ETC.,  TO  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  or  AMERICA. 
"  Our  Good  Brother  and  Faithful  Friend,  Greeting  : 

"  MR.  PRESIDENT  : — Whereas,  since  our  accession  by  the  blessing  of 
Heaven  to  the  sacred  throne  on  which  our  ancestors  reigned  from  time 


32  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

immemorial,  we  have  not  despatched  any  embassy  to  the  courts  and 
Governments  of  friendly  countries :  We  have  thought  fit  to  select  our 
trusty  and  honored  Minister  Sionii  Tomomi  Iwakura,  the  Junior  Prime 
Minister,  as  Ambassador  Extraordinary,  and  have  associated  with  him 
lussammi  Takayossi  Kido,  Member  of  the  Privy  Council ;  lussammi 
Tossimitsi  Okubo,  Minister  of  Finance ;  lushie  Hirobumie  Ito,  Acting 
Minister  of  Public  Works,  and  lushie  Massouha  Yamugutsi,  Assistant 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  Associate  Ambassadors  Extraordinary,  and 
invested  them  with  full  powers  to  proceed  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  to  other  Governments,  in  order  to  declare  our  cordial 
friendship,  and  to  place  the  peaceful  relations  between  our  respective 
nations  on  a  firmer  and  broader  basis. 

"  The  period  for  revising  the  treaties  now  existing  between  ourselves 
and  the  United  States,  is  less  than  one  year  distant.  We  expect  and  in 
tend  to  reform  and  improve  the  same  so  as  to  stand  upon  a  similar  footing 
with  the  most  enlightened  nations,  and  to  attain  the  full  development  of 
public  right  and  interest.  The  civilization  and  institutions  of  Japan  are 
so  different  from  those  of  other  countries,  that  we  cannot  expect  to  reach 
the  desired  end  at  once. 

"It  is  our  purpose  to  select  from  the  various  institutions  prevailing 
among  enlightened  nations  such  as  are  best  suited  to  our  present  condi 
tion,  and  adopt  them,  in  gradual  reforms  and  improvements  of  our  policy 
and  customs,  so  as  to  be  upon  an  equality  with  them. 

"  With  this  objective  desire  to  fully  disclose  to  the  United  States  Govern 
ment  the  condition  of  affairs  in  our  Empire,  and  to  consult  upon  the 
means  of  giving  greater  efficiency  to  our  institutions,  at  present  and  in  the 
future ;  and  as  soon  as  the  said  Embassy  returns  home  we  will  consider 
about  the  revision  of  the  treaties,  and  accomplish  what  we  have  expected 
and  intended. 

"  The  Ministers  who  compose  this  Embassy  have  our  confidence  and 
esteem.  We  request  you  to  favor  them  with  full  credence  and  due  regard ; 
and  we  earnestly  pray  for  your  continued  health  and  happiness,  and  for 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  your  great  Republic. 

"  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hand  and  the  great  seal  of 
our  Empire,  at  our  palace,  in  the  city  of  Tokio,  this  4th  of  eleventh  month 
of  fourth  year  of  Meiji. 

"  Your  affectionate  brother  and  friend, 

"  MOUTSOUKITO. 

"  JUICHII  SANETONII  SANJO, 

"Prime  Minister." 

After  this  ceremony,  the  Minister  resumed,  and  con 
cluded  his  address  as  follows : 


HISTORY    OF   THE   EMBASSY.  33 

"  The  objects  of  the  mission  with  which  we  are  charged  by  our  Gov 
ernment  are  somewhat  set  forth  in  this  letter.  We  are  authorized  to 
consult  with  your  Government  on  all  international  questions,  directing  our 
efforts  to  promote  and  develop  wider  commercial  relations  and  draw  into 
closer  bonds  the  strong  friendship  already  existing  between  our  respective 
peoples.  Thus  we  hope  to  gain  fresh  impulse  in  the  paths  of  progress, 
gaining  good  from  every  form  of  civilization.  This  we  shall  aim  to  do 
while  in  the  exercise  of  strict  integrity  to  our  own  national  interests,  so  trust 
ingly  confided  by  a  generous  sovereign,  and  shall  earnestly  hope  to  receive 
your  kind  co-operation  in  facilitating  the  task  assigned  us  by  our  Govern 
ment.  We  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  this  happy  meeting  to  convey  personally 
to  your  Excellency  our  sincere  wishes  for  your  continued  prosperity  and 
happiness,  and,  as  national  representatives,  we  extend  the  same  wish  to  all 
the  people  of  the  United  States." 

With  the  last  words  of  the  above  he  bowed  very  low, 
and  with  great  dignity  stepped  back  a  single  pace. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  then  read  to  the 
Ambassadors  the  following  reply  : — 

"  GENTLEMEN  :  I  am  gratified  that  this  country  and  that  my  adminis 
tration  will  be  distinguished  in  history  as  the  first  which  has  received  an 
Embassy  from  the  nation  with  which  the  United  States  was  the  first  to  es 
tablish  diplomatic  and  commercial  intercourse.  The  objects  which  you 
say  have  given  rise  to  your  mission  do  honor  to  the  intelligence  and  wisdom 
of  your  sovereign,  and  reflect  credit  on  you  in  having  been  chosen  as  'the 
instruments  for  carrying  them  into  effect.  The  time  must  be  regarded  as 
gone,  never  to  return,  when  any  nation  can  keep  apart  from  all  others,  and 
expect  to  enjoy  the  prosperity  and  happiness  which  depend  more  or  less 
upon  the  mutual  adoption  of  improvements,  not  only  in  the  science  of 
government,  but  in  those  other  sciences  and  arts  which  contribute  to  the 
dignity  of  mankind,  and  national  wealth  and  power.  Though  Japan  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  of  organized  communities  and  the  United  States 
rank  among  the  most  recent,  we  flatter  ourselves  that  we  have  made  some 
improvements  upon  the  political  institutions  of  the  nations  from  which  we 
are  descended.  Our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  wealth,  the 
power,  and  the  happiness  of  a  people  are  advanced  by  the  encouragement 
of  trade  and  commercial  intercourse  with  other  powers,  by  the  elevation 
and  dignity  of  labor,  by  the  practical  adaptation  of  science  to  the  manu 
factures  and  the  arts,  by  increased  facilities  of  frequent  and  rapid  commu 
nication  between  different  parts  of  the  country,  by  the  encouragement  of 
immigration,  which  brings  with  it  the  varied  habits  and  diverse  genius  and 

9* 


34  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

industry  of  other  lands,  by  a  free  press,  by  freedom  of  thought  and  of 
conscience,  and  a  liberal  toleration  in  matters  of  religion,  not  only  to  citi 
zens,  but  to  all  foreigners  resident  among  us.  It  will  be  a  pleasure  to  us 
to  enter  upon  that  consultation  upon  international  questions  in  which  you 
say  you  are  authorized  to  engage.  The  improvement  of  the  commercial 
relations  between  our  respective  countries  is  important  and  desirable,  and 
cannot  fail  to  strengthen  the  bonds  which  unite  us.  I  will  heartily  co-ope 
rate  in  so  desirable  an  object.  Your  kind  wishes  for  me  personally,  gentle 
men,  are  cordially  reciprocated.  I  trust  that  your  abode  with  us  may  be 
agreeable  to  you,  and  may  contribute  to  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
and  intercourse  between  our  respective  peoples." 

The  President  next  introduced  each  member  of  his  Cabi 
net  by  name  to  the  Ambassadors.  The  officers  of  the  va 
rious  Departments  were  then  called  forward,  commencing 
with  the  Department  of  State. 

After  these  introductions  were  over,  the  President  offered 
his  arm  to  Prime  Minister  Iwakura,  and,  with  the  Embassy, 
the  Cabinet  officers,  and  a  few  others,  proceeded  to  the 
Blue  Room. 

Here  were  stationed  several  ladies. 

After  formal  introductions  had  been  made  to  the  ladies, 
Mrs.  Grant,  Mr.  Mori  acting  as  interpreter,  held  a  very  pleas 
ant  conversation  with  Mr.  Iwakura  and  other  members  of 
the  Embassy.  They  all  remained  in  the  Blue  Room  for 
half  an  hour,  and  then  withdrew,  bowing  very  low  to  the 
ladies,  and  not  averting  their  faces  until  they  were  in  the 
main  corridor  of  the  Executive  Mansion. 

They  repaired  at  once  to  the  Arlington,  to  prepare  for  a 
splendid  social  entertainment  afforded  them  in  the  evening 
at  the  residence  of  Hon.  James  Brooks.  This  dinner  was 
given  by  Mr.  Brooks  as  a  recognition  of  the  handsome 
courtesies  extended  to  him  during  his  visit  in  Japan,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  elegant  entertainments  ever  given  in 
Washington. 


HISTORY    OP   THE   EMBASSY.  .10 

On  Wednesday,  the  6th  of  March,  the.  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  by  special  invitation,  gave  the  Japanese  Em 
bassy  a  formal  reception.  Long  before  the  appointed  hour 
the  galleries  of  the  House  of  Representatives  were  filled  to 
their  utmost  capacity  ;  and  when,  at  eleven  o'clock,  the 
Embassy  arrived  at  the  Capitol,  the  Chief  Ambassador 
was  escorted  by  the  Hon.  Nathaniel  P.  Banks,  Chairman 
of  the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the  other  Am 
bassadors  by  the  remaining  members  of  the  same.  Com 
mittee.  As  they  entered  the  hall,  the  members  and  clerks 
rose  and  received  them  standing,  and  the  visitors  were  es 
corted  to  the  semicircle  in  front  of  the  Speaker's  desk,  the 
chief  Ambassadors  taking  positions  nearest  the  desk,  and 
the  attaches  in  the  rear  of  them.  Amid  profound  silence, 
General  Banks  then  introduced  the  distinguished  visitors, 
and  as  each  name  was  mentioned  the  person  designated 
bowed  low.  A  moment  afterward,  the  Hon.  James  G. 
Blaine,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  addressed 
the  Embassy  as  follows : 

"  YOTTR  EXCELLENCIES  :  On  behalf  of  the  House  of  Representatives  I 
welcome  your  Imperial  Embassy  to  this  hall.  The  reception  which  is  thus 
extended  to  you  so  unanimously  and  so  cordially  by  the  members  of  this 
body  is  significant  of  the  interest  which  our  whole  people  feel  in  the 
rapidly  developing  relations  between  the  Japanese  Empire  and  the  Amer 
ican  Republic 

"  The  course  of  migration  for  the  human  race  has  for  many  centuries 
been  steadily  westward — a  course  always  marked  by  conquest,  and  too  often 
by  rapine.  Reaching  the  boundary  of  our  continent,  we  encountered  a  re 
turning  tide  from  your  country  setting  eastward,  seeking,  not  the  trophies 
of  war,  but  the  more  shining  victories  of  peace  ;  and  these  two  currents  of 
population  appropriately  meet  and  mingle  on  the  shores  of  the  great  Pa- 
c'Hc  Sen.  It  will  be  my  pleasure  to  present  to  you  personally  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  people  ;  and  I  beg  to  assure  you,  for  them  and  for  myself, 
that  during  your  stay  at  our  capital  you  will  be  at  all  times  welcome  to  the 
privileges  and  courtesies  of  this  floor." 


36  THE   JAPANESE   IK    AMEEICA. 

At  the  close  of  the  Speaker's  address  the  Chief  Ambas 
sador  was  introduced,  and  deliberately  unrolling  a  parch 
ment,  he  proceeded  to  read  an  address  in  his  native 
tongue. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  address,  winch  was  delivered 
in  a  clear  and  distinct,  though  not  powerful,  voice,  and  with 
a  peculiar  and  somewhat  monotonous  intonation,  which 
made  the  strange  scene  the  more  striking,  General  Banks, 
at  the  request  of  the  Prince,  read  the  following  translation 
of  the  Chief  Ambassador's  address,  which  he  requested 
might  be  spread  upon  the  journal  of  the  House. 


"Mr.  Speaker,  and  Honorable  Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of 

'    the  United  States  : 

"  On  behalf  of  the  Ambassadors  of  Japan,  our  sovereign,  and  the  people 
whom  we  represent,  we  tender  to  you  our  sincere  thanks  and  warmest 
friendship.  We  fully  appreciate  the  distinguished  honor  which  places  us, 
face  to  face,  in  presence  ot  that  mighty  power  which  rules  the  great  Amer 
ican  Republic. 

'  Governments  are  strong  when  built  upon  the  hearts  of  an  enlightened 
people.  We  came  for  enlightenment,  and  gladly  find  it  here.  Journeying 
eastward  from  the  empire  of  sunrise  toward  the  sun-rising,  we  behold  a  new 
sunrise  beyond  the  one  we  before  enjoyed. 

"  New  knowledge  rises  daily  before  us,  and  when  a  completed  trip  shall 
shall  have  passed  in  review,  an  encircled  globe  shall  gather  together  our 
treasures  of  knowledge ;  remembering  that  however  we  have  advanced 
toward  the  sources  of  light,  each  onward  move  has  revealed  a  further  step 
beyond.  The  Government  of  Japan  already  appreciates  the  value  of  an 
enlightened  policy  toward  itself  and  all  nations ;  but  our  mutual  assur 
ances  on  our  return  will  confirm  to  the  people  at  large  the  friendliness  of 
feeling  so  frequently  expressed  heretofore,  and  now  so  generously  ex 
hibited  to  this  Embassy. 

"  In  the  future  an  extended  commerce  will  unite  our  national  interests  in 
a  thousand  forms,  as  drops  of  water  will  commingle,  flowing  from  our  sev 
eral  rivers  to  that  common  ocean  that  divides  our  countries. 

"Let  us  express  the  hope  that  our  national  friendship  may  be  as  difficult 
to  sunder  or  estrange  as  to  divide  the  once  blended  drops  composing  our 
common  Pacific  Ocean." 


HISTORY   OF   THE    EMBASSY.  37 

This  concluded,  the  Embassy  faced  the  body  of  the 
Representatives,  and  the  latter  filed  past  and  were  severally 
introduced.  The  Hon.  Schuyler  Colfax,  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  and  President  of  the  Senate,  honored 
the  occasion  with  his  presence,  and  was  the  first  dignitary 
presented  to  the  Embassy ;  and  the  Hon.  Henry  L.  Dawes, 
on  behalf  of  the  Representatives,  took  occasion  to  say  that 
they  had  all  listened  with  great  pleasure  to  the  speech 
delivered  by  the  Ambassador;  after  which  the  entire. body 
paid  an  informal  visit  to  the  Chamber  of  the  United  States 
Senate,  then  in  session,  and  were  next  shown  about  the 
Capitol  building  generally.  During  the  remainder  of  their 
stay  in  Washington,  the  members  of  the  Embassy  were 
constantly  engaged  in  attending  to  their  business  with  the 
Government  or  in  accepting  hospitalities,  and  they  were  to 
leave  the  Metropolis  only  to  enjoy  a  continuous  series  of 
welcoming  entertainments  in  the  cities  of  the  North,  to 
which  they  were  invited  by  many  delegations  of  distin 
guished  gentlemen. 

Having  now  seen  that  the  Japanese  Embassy  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  American  Government,  and  that  they  are 
visiting  the  institutions  of  the  nation,  under  official  escort, 
and  that  they  are  being  hospitably  entertained  by  corporate 
bodies  in  all  the  leading  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  we 
proceed  to  give  a  few  particulars  of  a  personal  character. 

And  first,  as  to  the  Chief  Ambassador,  Tomomi  Iwakura. 
He  was  born  in  1825,  and  is  a  man  of  superior  abilities. 
He  does  not  speak  English,  but  has  manifested  his  regard 
for  education  by  sending  three  of  his  sons  to  be  educated 
in  this  country.  He  is  the  Left-hand  President  of 
His  Japanese  Imperial  Majesty's  Ministry — Sandeo  being 


38  THE   JAPANESE   IX   AMERICA. 

the  Right-hand  President — and  is,  in  fact,  the  principal 
working  executive  officer  of  the  Japanese  Government.  His 
visit  confers  the  same  degree  of  honor  from  Japan,  as  the 
visit  in  person  of  the  Premier  of  Great  Britain  would  con 
fer  from  that  power.  He  was  an  inveterate  opponent  of 
the  Tycoon  in  the  late  war,  and  was  for  several  years 
held  as  a  prisoner  by  the  Tycoon's  Government.  To  him, 
more  than  any  other  man,  is  due  the  late  revolution  and  its 
wonderful  results,  and  he  now  wields  a  corresponding  in 
fluence  in  the  Japanese  Ministry. 

His  first  public  audience  at  Court  was  in  December, 
1858.  He  was  appointed  to  the  Privy  Council  in  Decem 
ber,  1863,  soon  after  the  formation  of  the  present  Govern 
ment.  He  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  Ministry 
(Cabinet)  January  9,  1868.  The  title  of  "Sionii,"  the  sec 
ond  honorary  grade  of  the  imperial  order,  was  conferred 
upon  him,  February,  1869.  This  is  the  first  title  below  the 
imperial  title.  On  the  26th  day  of  September,  1869,  the 
Emperor  issued  the  following  decree  : 

"ToMOMi,—  Being  zealous  in  strengthening  the  Imperial 
authority  throughout  our  Empire,  you  have  at  length 
succeeded  in  establishing  our  Government  in  its  present 
form,  and  have  taken  upon  yourself  this  great  task  of  ad 
ministration. 

"  You  have,  indeed,  labored  industriously,  vigorously, 
and  nobly  at  this  difficult  task,  and  your  plans  and  sug 
gestions  have  always  been  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
our  Empire.  You  are  the  founder  of  our  present  style 
of  Government,  and  the  indispensable  member  of  my 
councils.  As  I  am  heartily  gratified  with  your  distin 
guished  merit,  it  is  my  pleasure  to  bestow  upon  you  the 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  39 

augmental  salary  perpetually,  without  chance    of    discon 
tinuation. 

"  In  future  I  expect  to  rely  upon  your  assistance  as  much 
as  I  have  in  the  past." 

He  was  appointed  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  July,  1871, 
and  raised  to  the  rank  of  Junior  Prime  Minister,  October, 
1871,  and  is  now  Ambassador  Extraordinary,  charged  with 
the  most  important  mission  that  lias  ever  left  the  shores 
of  Japan,  and  one  more  important  than  any  which  ever 
reached  our  shores  from  any  Eastern  nation. 

During  his  visit  to  San  Francisco,  Consul  Brooks  had 
two  imperial  photographs  taken  of  His  Excellency,  one  of 
them  in  his  official  Japanese  costume,  and  one  in  the  pre 
vailing  American  dress.  When  copies  of  these  portraits 
were  presented  to  Mr.  Mori  in  Washington,  he  had  them 
put  into  one  frame,  side  by  side,  and  hung  up  in  the 
guest-chamber  of  the  Legation  ;  and,  in  view  of  the  great 
changes  now  going  on  in  the  East,  had  them  labelled  with 
these  words  in  Japanese  characters — Ancient  and  Modern 
Japan. 

With  regard  to  the  four  associate  Ambassadors,  we  are 
only  able  at  present  to  give  the  following  particulars : 

Takayossi  Kido  is  of  the  clan  Choshieri,  which  holds  the 
lower  end  of  the  Island  of  Nipon,  commanding  the  Straits 
of  Simonoseky.  This  was  one  of  the  first  clans  to  raise  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  the  Tycoon,  and  Kido  was  one 
of  the  chief  emissaries  under  Iwakura  for  the  organizing 
of  the  army,  uniting  the  other  clans  in  the  cause.  Since 
the  revolution  he  has  been  made  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council.  He  is  thirty-nine  years  of  age,  was  a  leading  man 
before  the  revolution,  but  since  that  event  has  been  held  in 


40  THE   JAPANESE   IN    AMERICA. 

greater  esteem.  Pie  does  not  speak  English,  and  has  never 
before  been  out  of  Japan.  Tossiraitsi  Okubo  is  forty-three 
years  old,  and  belongs  to  the  warlike  clan  of  Satsma,  which 
holds  the  Loo  Choo  group  and  the  south  end  of  Kanchin.  He 
is  now  Chief  Minister  of  Finance.  His  knowledge  of  English 
is  very  limited,  and  he  has  never  before  been  out  of  Japan. 

It  is  said  of  him  that  upon  news  of  a  defeat  in  the 
first  battle  of  the  revolution  (which  was  the  outgrowth  of 
600  years,  so  slow  do  great  movements  ripen  in  Japan) 
some  one  asked  in  the  General  Council  what  they  should 
do  with  themselves  and  the  Mikado.  Okubo  replied,  "  Let 
us  expect  no  more  than  to  die  here ;  but  while  a  Satsma 
lives,  the  usurpation  of  the  Tycoon  will  be  resisted."  It 
was  Okubo's  soldiers  that  at  last  turned  the  battle  and 
defeated  the  Tycoon. 

Hirobumi  Ito  is  said  to  be  thirty-two  years  of  age,  speaks 
English  fluently,  is  a  close  observer  of  men  and  things, 
visited  England  about  ten  years  ago,  and  took  part  in 
negotiating  the  Treaty  which  called  for  the  payment  of 
$3,000,000  to  the  four  Powers,  and  his  present  visit  is  the 
second  he  has  made  to  this  country.  He  was  formerly 
Governor  of  Hiogo  and  Kobe  ;  put  in  operation  the  present 
system  of  revenue  in  Japan  ;  and,  as  Acting  Minister  of 
Public  Works,  he  has  been  intrusted  with  authority  to 
purchase  or  order  to  be  built  and  put  in  operation  a  great 
variety  of  things  having  reference  to  the  material  pros 
perity  of  his  country.  His  friendship  for  America  and 
American  institutions  is  conspicuous,  and  during  his  former 
visit  to  Washington  he  made  many  warm  personal  friends. 

Massouka  Yamagutsi  is  the  fifth  Ambassador ;  he  is  the 
Assistant  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  about  thirty-four 


HISTOKY   OF   THE    EMBASSY.  41 

years  old ;  has  some  knowledge  of  international  law  ;  and 
is  recognized  as  a  man  of  ability.  He  does  not  speak  Eng 
lish,  and  has  never  been  out  of  Japan  before. 

The  honorable  Commissioners,  who  form  a  part  of  the 
Embassy,  are  all  men  of  high  rank  in  the  Army  and  Civil 
List  of  Japan,  and  their  business  is  to  inquire  into  what 
ever  may  be  of  advantage,  in  the  special  departments  of  the 
Government  to  which  they  are  attached. 

It  is  now  our  duty,  and  most  certainly  our  pleasure,  to 
make  a  special  allusion  to  .Jugoi  Arinori  Mori,  ChargZ 
(V Affaires  from  Japan  in  Washington,  to  w7hom  was  assigned 
the  task  of  receiving  and  providing  for  the  comfort  of  his 
diplomatic  associates  during  their  sojourn  in  America.  He 
was  born  in  the  southern  part  of  Japan,  and  is  not  yet  twenty- 
five  years  old.  He  was  among  the  first  Japanese  students 
sent  to  England  to  be  educated,  and,  after  remaining  in 
London  two  years,  he  returned  to  Japan.  He  took  a  lead 
ing  part  in  the  Home  Parliament  after  the  late  revolution, 
and  was  afterward,  on  account  of  his  talents  and  Western 
education,  appointed  Minister  to  this  country — having  been 
the  first  to  receive  a  diplomatic  mission  from  his  Govern 
ment. 

He  is  greatly  interested  in  the  progress  of  knowledge, 
earnest  and  desirous  of  promoting  the  advancement  of  his 
country  in  all  good  things.  By  his  intercourse  with  our 
official  representatives,  and  by  his  visits  to  different  parts  of 
the  country,  he  has  gained  the  confidence  and  esteem  of 
very  many  distinguished  Americans. 

While  occupying  a  seat  in  the  National  Legislature  of 
his  country,  Mr.  Mori  introduced  a  proposition  to  abolish 
the  ancient  custom  of  wearing  two  swords,  by  one  of  the 


42  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

great  privileged  classes;  for  a  time  the  measure  met  with 
determined  hostility,  but  was  subsequently  successful ;  and 
the  following  letter  connected  with  this  subject,  addressed 
to  the  Hon.  Wm.  W.  Belknap,  Secretary  of  War,  by  Mr. 
Mori,  will  be  read  with  interest : 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  ask  your  acceptance  of  the  ac 
companying  Japanese  sword,  to  be  deposited  in  the 
Military  Museum  attached  to  your  Department.  It  has 
hitherto  been  worn  by  one  of  the  provincial  officials  of 
Japan,  who  is  now  travelling  in  this  country.  He  brought 
it  with  him,  because  of  his  former  devotion  to  the  ancient 
custom  of  wearing  that  weapon  in  duplicate ;  but  having, 
since  his  arrival  here,  been  convinced  of  the  uselessness  of 
that  custom,  he  thought  proper  to  present  the  weapon  to  me. 
And  if  you  will  pardon  me,  I  may  add  that  the  significance 
of  this  act  on  the  part  of  my  friend  (Mr.  Kondo)  is  enhanced 
by  the  fact  that  the  original  proposition  for  abolishing  the 
wearing  of  two  swords  was  submitted  in  the  Japanese 
Parliament  by  myself,  and  that  Mr.  Kondo  was  one  of  those 
who,  at  that  time,  deprecated  my  proposition.  It  may  be 
well  enough  for  me  to  add  that  the  blade  of  this  sword  was 
manufactured  more  than  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  that 
the  metal  is  considered  far  more  valuable  than  that  em 
ployed  in  modern  times." 

Some  time  ago,  when  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  was  informed  that  the  Japanese 
Government  had  been  compelled  to  pay  to  the  United 
States  an  indemnity  of  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars,  on  the  strength  of  what  many  think  an 
unjust  claim,  and  that  this  money  was  held  by  the  Depart 
ment  of  State,  and  not  deposited  in  the  Treasury,  he  in- 


HISTORY    OF   THE   EMBASSY.  43 

augurated  a  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  money.  He 
consulted  with  Mr.  Mori,  and  when  that  gentleman  earnestly 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  money,  if  returned,  should  be 
devoted  exclusively  to  educational  purposes,  the  Professor 
at  once  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Joint  Committee  on  the 
Library  of  Congress,  setting  forth  his  views  at  considerable 
length  ;  and  as  that  letter  is  both  interesting  and  valuable, 
we  are  glad  to  print  it,  as  follows: 

"  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

WASHINGTON,  Jan.  10th,  1872. 

To  the  Joint  Committee  on  the 

Library  of  Congress,  Capitol : 

"  GENTLEMEN  :  The  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  its  mission  for  the 
'  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men/  has  entered  into  friendly 
relations  with  the  authorities  of  Japan  for  the  exchange  of  specimens  of 
natural  history  and  ethnology,  and  for  the  establishment  of  meteorological, 
magnetic,  and  other  physical  observations.  In  relation  to  these  matters,  I 
have  had  frequent  intercourse  with  Mr.  A.  Mori,  the  Japanese  Minister, 
and  have  been  informed  as  to  his  various  plans  for  elevating  the  intellectual 
condition  of  his  people.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  National  Institution  in  the  city  of  Jeddo  for  educational  pur 
poses,  to  be  furnished  with  a  Library  in  which  shall  be  represented  the 
science  and  literature  of  Western  Europe  and  the  United  States,  with 
specimens,  apparatus,  and  models,  to  fully  illustrate  all  the  principles  of 
abstract  science,  as  well  as  their  application  to  the  practical  uses  of  life. 

"  This  Institution  is  designed  to  be  a  great  central  university,  and  to 
serve  as  a  normal  school,  in  which  teachers  may  finish  their  education  as 
rapidly  as  a  knowledge  of  the  English  language  is  disseminated  through 
out  the  country. 

"  In  view  of  the  intimate  relations  existing  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  money  known  as  the  Indemnity 
Fund  has  been  obtained,  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  might  with  pro 
priety  be  appropriated  by  Congress,  for  the  benefit  of  the  proposed  Institu 
tion  ;  and  it  is  the  object  of  this  letter  to  respectfully  present  this  suggestion 
to  you  for  your  consideration,  and  through  you,  should  it  meet  your  appro 
bation,  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

"  I  may  be  allowed  to  say,  in  favor  of  the  suggestion,  that  its  adoption 
would  indicate  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  sentiments  entertained  by  the 
Japanese  people  with  regard  to  the  character  and  institutions  of  our  coun- 


44  THE   JAPANESE   IIT   AMERICA. 

try,  and  be  a  manifestation  of  a  desire  on  our  part  to  encourage  and  aid 
them  in  the  remarkable  efforts  they  are  now  making  to  become  imbued 
with  the  principles  and  habits  of  modern  civilization.  Furthermore,  it 
would  tend,  beyond  anything  else,  to  show  that  in  our  intercourse  with 
them  we  are  actuated  by  other  and  higher  motives  than  those  which  per 
tain  to  commercial  benefits  merely,  and  strengthen  the  unreserved  confi 
dence  with  which  they  are  now  receiving  our  advice  and  adopting  our 
instruction. 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully, 

"  Your  obedient  servant, 
(Signed)  "JOSEPH  HENRY,  Sect.  S.  Inst." 

The  gentlemen  of  that  Committee  were  favorably  im 
pressed  with  the  proposition,  but  referred  it  to  the  Com 
mittee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  which  was  equally  favorable; 
it  also  met  with  the  hearty  co-operation  of  the  President 
and  Secretary  of  State ;  and  either  that  or  another  kindred 
proposition,  founded  upon  the  opening  of  the  ports  of 
Japan,  would  seem  to  be  in  a  fair  way  of  being  accom 
plished.  As  it  is  quite  likely  that  Congress  will  be  influ 
enced  by  Mr.  Mori's  opinions  and  wishes  on  this  important 
subject,  we  may  state  them  in  outline  as  follows:  He 
would  take  about  one-third  of  the  amount,  and  erect  in 
Japan  a  number  of  appropriate  buildings  in  the  leading 
cities,  and  furnish  them  with  all  the  necessaries,  including 
libraries  and  scientific  apparatus,  for  a  complete  course  of 
education;  he  would  have  them  supplied  with  professors 
and  subordinate  teachers,  taken  from  the  United  States; 
and  would  then  have  the  balance  of  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars  invested  in  United  States  securities,  and  kept  in 
Washington,  the  interest  of  which  should  be  used  to  sup 
port  the  institutions  in  Japan.  The  idea  is  indeed  a 
splendid  one,  and  in  strict  keeping  with  the  many  and 
unwearied  efforts  of  Mr.  Mori  to  elevate  and  promote  the 
permanent  prosperity  and  happiness  of  his  people. 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  45 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  features  con 
nected  with  the  advent  of  the  Embassy  in  this  country, 
was  the  fact  that  it  was  accompanied  by  a  party  of  young 
Japanese  girls,  who  were  brought  hither  for  the  purpose 
of  being  educated ;  and  we  feel  certain  that,  in  concluding 
this  account,  a  few  words  about  them  will  be  acceptable  to 
the  public. 

In  1871,  a  Japanese  gentleman,  named  R.  Kuroda,  passed 
through  the  United  States  on  his  way  from  England  to 
Japan.  He  subsequently  returned  to  America,  and  in  his 
official  capacity  as  Commissioner  of  the  Island  of  Yesso, 
concluded  arrangements  which  resulted  in  securing  the 
services  of  General  Horace  Capron  for  the  benefit  of  Japan. 
During  his  two  brief  visits  to  this  country,  he  became  so 
deeply  impressed  with  the  happy  condition  of  the  American 
woman,  that  he  began  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  such  a 
state  of  things,  and  was  told  that  it  was  because  the  women 
of  the  country  were  educated,  treated  with  the  highest 
consideration,  and  are  regarded  equal  to  men  in  all  the 
higher  qualities  of  humanity.  With  his  friend,  Mr.  Arinori 
Mori,  he  held  several  long  discussions  on  the  subject,  took 
the  advanced  ground  that  the  Japanese  ought  to  inter 
marry  with  the  people  of  the  more  enlightened  foreign 
nations,  and,  in  his  zeal,  went  so  far  as  to  insist  that  Mr. 
Mori  should  marry  an  American  lady  without  delay.  To 
this  the  youthful  minister  replied,  that  he  considered  him 
self  a  true  patriot,  and  would  like  to  oblige  his  friend,  but 
did  not  think  it  necessary  for  him  to  go  into  the  marrying 
business  quite  so  suddenly.  From  that  time,  however, 
Mr.  Kuroda  thought  and  talked  unceasingly  about  the  im 
portance  of  educating  the  women  of  his  native  land.  The 


46  THE   JAPANESE   1^   AMEKICA. 

letter  which  he  wrote  to  his  Government  on  this  subject 
deserves  to  be  printed  in  gold.  A  copy  of  it  was  brought 
to  this  country  by  the  Embassy,  and  delivered  to  Mr. 
Mori.  After  commenting  upon  the  importance  of  coloniz 
ing  the  wilder  parts  of  Japan,  the  writer  goes  on  to  speak 
of  the  importance  of  education.  To  send  ignorant  men 
into  the  new  regions  would  be  quite  useless,  and,  therefore, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  educate  the  women  of  the 
Empire,  so  that  the  coming  generation  might  be  enlightened. 
While  children  under  ten  years  of  age  were  wholly  under 
the  influence  of  their  mothers,  it  was,  of  course,  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  they  should  be  educated.  As  a 
little  leaven  leavens  the  whole  lump,  so  would  the  education 
of  women  elevate  the  people  of  Japan.  The  Government 
had  sent  its  young  men  to  America  and  Europe  to  be 
educated,  and  was  already  reaping  a  valuable  return;  and 
now  was  the  time  for  Japan  to  begin  to  educate  its  women  ; 
and  hence  he  would  have  a  delegation  of  girls  sent  to 
America  without  delay,  and  he  knew  that  a  great  many 
others  would  follow  in  this  pathwray  of  enlightenment. 
What  was  new  with  Mr.  Kuroda,  however,  was  an  old 
story  with  Mr.  Mori,  who,  if  a  little  less  enthusiastic,  was 
quite  as  deeply  interested  as  the  commissioner.  On  his 
return  to  Japan,  he  broached  the  idea  to  his  Government 
of  sending  a  number  of  young  girls  to  America  to  be 
educated  ;  reported  the  fact  that  he  was  fully  indorsed  by 
Mr.  Mori,  and,  having  obtained  the  hearty  co-operation  of 
Tomomi  Iwakura,  the  Junior  Prime  Minister  of  Japan,  an 
arrangement  was  made  by  which  five  Japanese  girls  were 
permitted  to  accompany  the  great  Embassy  to  Washington. 
As  the  American  Minister,  Mr.  Charles  E.  DeLong,  was 


£ 

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W 

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HISTORY   OF  THE   EMBASSY.  47 

about  to  visit  the  United  States  on  private  business,  he 
joined  the  Embassy;  and,  as  he  was  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  she  took  charge  of  the  Japanese  girls  during  their 
long  journey  from  Yeddo  to  Washington ;  and  treated  them 
with  great  kindness  and  attention,  and  received  their 
gratitude  in  return.  Before  leaving  home  they  were  sum 
moned  to  Yeddo,  and  in  testimony  of  the  good-will  of  the 
Mikado,  and  according  to  an  ancient  custom,  they  were 
each  presented,  by  the  attendants  of  the  Court,  with  beau 
tiful  specimens  of  crimson  crape,  and  an  order  was  issued 
that  their  expenses  while  in  America  should  be  paid  by  the 
Government. 

The  names  of  this  delegation  of  Japanese  girls  are  as 
follows:  Lio  Yoshimas,  aged  15;  Tei  Wooyeda,  aged 
about  15;  Stematz  Yamagawa,  aged  12;  Shinge  Nagai, 
aged  10,  and  Time  Tsuda.  aged  8  years.  They  represent 
in  their  persons  five  distinct  families,  and  while  they  are 
not  immediately  connected  with  the  imperial  family  of 
Japan,  they  do  belong  to  that  particular  class,  which  would, 
in  this  country,  be  called  the  aristocracy  of  intellect  and 
wealth  combined.  How  these  particular  girls  happened 
to  be  selected  is  not  important ;  and,  although  their  fathers 
or  friends  were  abundantly  able  to  send  them  abroad,  they 
have  in  reality  come  to  this  country  as  the  wards  of  the 
Japanese  Government.  Their  fathers  are  all  connected 
with  the  present  Government,  and  rank  as  follows :  Yoshi 
mas,  retainer  of  a  prince  of  Tokzyawa;  Wooyeda,  Second 
Secretary  of  the  Department  of  State ;  Yamagawa,  First 
Chamberlain  to  the  Prince  of  Adzu  ;  Nagai  was  formerly 
a  retainer  of  the  Tycoon,  but  now  holds  allegiance  to  the 
ruling  power,  and  has  a  public  position  ;  Tsuda  is  one  of 


48  THE    JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

the  Secretaries  of  Agriculture,  as  well  as  a  Geologist  and  Civil 
Engineer.  They  were  consigned  to  the  care  of  the  Jap 
anese  Minister,  Mr.  Mori,  in  Washington ;  and,  in  view  of 
very  numerous  applications  that  were  made  by  educational 
institutions  throughout  the  country,  to  take  them  in  charge, 
and  while  debating  what  was  best  to  do  with  the  girls, 
Mr.  Mori  resolved  to  keep  them  for  a  few  months  under 
his  immediate  protection,  and  obtained  comfortable  and 
cheerful  homes  for  them  in  Georgetown,  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  Editor  of  this  volume. 

With  regard  to  the  kind  of  education  which  the  Govern 
ment  of  Japan  would  have  bestowed  upon  these  girls,  that 
is  a  question  which  will  probably  be  decided  by  Mr.  Mori, 
and  his  personal  views  have  been  freely  expressed  in  Wash 
ington  society.  He  would,  in  the  first  place,  have  them 
made  fully  acquainted  with  the  blessings  of  home  life  in 
the  United  States;  and,  in  the  second  place,  he  would  have 
their  minds  fully  stored  with  all  those  kinds  of  information 
which  will  make  them  true  ladies. 

The  glitter  and  folly  of  fashionable  life  may  do  for  those 
who  have  no  love  or  respect  for  what  is  called  true  cul 
ture  ;  but  that  is  not  the  arena  in  which  he  would  place 
the  bright-eyed  daughters  of  his  native  land.  That  the 
Tenno  of  Japan  is  in  hearty  sympathy  with  the  educa 
tional  movement  now  under  consideration  is  proven  by  one 
of  his  recent  declarations,  in  which,  to  the  astonishment  of 
the  world,  he  has  uttered  the  following  sentiment : 

"  My  country  is  now  undergoing  a  complete  change 
from  old  to  new  ideas,  which  I  sincerely  desire,  and  there 
fore  call  upon  all  the  wise  and  strong-minded  to  appear, 
and  become  good  guides  to  the  Government.  During 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  49 

youth  time,  it  is  positively  necessary  to  view  foreign 
countries,  so  as  to  become  enlightened  as  to  the  ideas  of 
the  world  ;  and  boys  as  well  as  girls,  who  will  themselves 
soon  become  men  and  women,  should  be  allowed  to  go 
abroad,  and  my  country  will  benefit  by  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired.  Females  heretofore  have  had  no  position 
socially,  because  it  was  considered  they  were  without  un 
derstanding ;  but  if  educated  and  intelligent,  they  should 
have  due  respect." 

We  are  pleased  to  know  that  since  their  arrival  in  the 
District,  they  have  appeared  very  happy,  and  have  ex 
pressed  themselves  well  pleased  with  the  temporary  ar 
rangement  which  Mr.  Mori  has  made  for  them.  They  are  all 
eager  to  learn  the  English  language,  and  they  have  already 
become  acquainted  with  many  common  words  and  their 
uses.  The  most  interesting  feature  among  them  is  probably 
the  fact  that  the  youngest  was  sent  by  her  mother,  who  vol 
untarily  makes  the  sacrifice  of  her  own  happiness  for  the  ben 
efit  of  her  child.  Her  father  is  a  good  English  scholar,  and 
has  already  taught  the  little  one  many  words;  and  among 
her  valuables,  carefully  packed  away  by  them  for  her,  is  an 
illustrated  cyclopaedia,  in  two  large  Japanese  volumes,  in 
which  is  written,  "My  dear  daughter  Ume,  from  father; 
Yeddo,  Dec.  19,  1871,"  and  a  good  supply  of  letter-paper, 
pencils,  and  India-ink,  which  she  seems  to  appreciate.  She 
is  very  bright,  and  quickly  learns  what  she  is  taught. 
They  have  all  been  more  pleased  with  a  selection  of 
American  primers  than  anything  they  have  been  shown. 
Their  time  seems  to  be  most  cheerfully  and  satisfactorily 
employed,  which  is  devoted  to  the  spelling  of  words,  ex 
pressing  the  common  articles  in  daily  use  on  the  table  and 

3 


50  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

about  the  house,  and  the  oldest  assists  in  the  duties  of  the 
household,  at  her  own  request.  They  all  know  the  English 
alphabet,  and  are  apt  at  forming  words  therefrom. 

They  have  brought  with  them  several  handsome  dresses, 
which  are  of  elegant  materials,  and  embroidered  in  gold 
and  colored  silks,  mostly  upon  a  fabric  of  Canton  crape. 

The  youngest  has  brought  from  her  home  pictures  of 
her  father's  house,  with  the  family  on  the  porch  or  balcony 
in  front ;  in  one  scene  the  house  looks  upon  a  rice-field  ;  in 
another,  upon  a  beautiful  lake,  and  another  gives  a  glimpse 
of  river  scenery,  with  the  banks  lined  with  cherry-trees. 
Her  mother  is  seated,  with  her  little  sister  in  her  lap,  her 
father  by  her  side,  and  her  mother,  a  vcrf  old  person, 
beside  him.  There  is  also  another  picture  of  the  mother 
with  her  little  Time's  hand  in  hers,  and  this  seems  to  be  a 
pleasant  picture  to  the  little  wanderer.  She  does  not 
seem  to  be  at  all  homesick,  and  her  companions  say  that 
she  has  never  been  unhappy  since  she  left  Japan.  The 
two  older  ones  are  graceful,  sprightly,  and  attractive, 
although  not  beautiful,  and  are  very  neat  in  their  habits 
and  persons.  The  other  two  are  full  of  mischief  and  glee, 
making  the  house  ring  with  their  merry  laughter.  They 
are  anxious  to  assume  the  American  garb,  and  are  impa 
tient  to  have  their  wardrobes  completed  at  once.  They  do 
not  use  any  paint  or  powder,  as  has  been  asserted,  and 
have  abandoned  their  pomatums,  hoping  thereby  to  be 
better  enabled  to  arrange  their  luxuriant  hair  in  the 
American  bushy  style.  They  are  all  exceedingly  polite 
and  gentle  in  their  manners. 

It  having  been  intimated  to  these  girls,  on  their  arrival 
in  San  Francisco,  that  they  ought  to  be,  or  might  be,  sup- 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  51 

plied  with  jewelry,  the  older  ones  declined  any  such  ar 
rangement.  They  said  that  their  Government  had  been 
very  kind  in  sending  them  here  to  be  educated,  that  the 
expenses  attending  their  education  would  be  great,  and 
that  they  would  be  perfectly  willing  to  dress  in  the  most 
humble  manner  until  their  return  to  Japan.  And  these  are 
the  people  whom  some  of  the  fools  of  America  would  treat 
with  ridicule ! 

It  may  be  mentioned  that,  although  the  majority  of  the 
Japanese  in  this  country  seem  anxious  to  see  the  women 
educated,  there  is  to  be  found  an  occasional  dissenter,  one 
of  whom  happens  to  be  at  school  in  Norwich,  Connecticut, 
and  is  the  brother  of  one  of  these  young  girls ;  and,  on  hear 
ing  that  his  sister  was  coming  with  the  Embassy,  he  wrote 
to  Mr.  Mori  that  he  was  opposed  to  the  educational  system 
for  women,  and  hoped  that  he  would  not  send  his  sister 
anywhere  in  his  vicinity,  but  would  keep  her  under  his 
own  eye.  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  he  subse 
quently  discussed  the  matter  with  Mr.  Mori  in  person,  and 
was  at  once  converted  to  the  more  enlightened  doctrine, 
and  is  now  very  glad  that  his  sister  is  in  this  country. 

It  is  generally  supposed,  as  we  learn  from  a  Japanese, 
that  the  nations  of  Asia  pay  little  respect  to  ladies,  and  it 
is  true,  in  many  cases.  This  degradation  of  w^oman  unfor 
tunately  arose  from  mistaken  views,  inculcated  in  the 
philosophy  of  China,  for  Chinese  classics  found  their  way 
into  Japan  much  as  those  of  Greece  and  Rome  did  among 
scholars  of  western  nations-.  He  also  says  that  "  from  the 
earliest  dawn  of  our  recorded  history,  women  have  enjoyed 
equal  rights  with  men,  and,  although  abuses  may  have 
crept  in  among  our  lower  classes,  womanhood  has  never 


52  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

been  degraded  in  Japan.  Whatever  customs  have  been 
introduced  in  among  the  lower  classes,  through  the  perni 
cious  teachings  of  Chinese  literature,  they  have  been  con 
stantly  resisted  by  our  better  classes.  Never  original  to 
Japan,  our  efforts  have  been  to  eradicate  them  as  fast  as 
possible.  In  proof  of  these  assertions,  I  refer  to  our  ancient 
history,  showing  that  out  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four 
sovereigns,  rulers  of  Japan,  eight  empresses  are  included 
in  the  list.  These  ladies  ruled  long  and  wisely.  Under 
the  rule  of  an  empress,  Japan  attacked  and  conquered 
Corea,  after  a  brilliant  campaign,  which  country  she  held 
as  a  dependency  for  over  six  hundred  years,  when,  finding 
it  had  become  more  care  than  value,  we  voluntarily  relin 
quished  it.  Under  the  rule  of  an  empress,  Japan  attained 
high  literary  culture,  religion  was  inculcated  and  re 
spected,  and  facilities  for  general  education  were  greatly 
improved.  China  never  had  an  empress.  Throughout 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  lines  of  heredi 
tary  descent  have  been  wholly  male;  but  I  am  happy  to 
say,  Japan  has  prospered  under  eight  such  reigns.  Find 
ing  our  ancient  practice  confirmed  by  the  experience  of 
western  nations,  Japan  need  not  hesitate  now  to  enforce 
among  all  classes  that  respect  and  consideration  for 
woman  which  has  never  been  wanting  about  her  Court, 
and  among  her  better  families.  Thus  may  Japan  hope  to 
insure  the  stability  of  her  civilization,  and  regain  her  early 
chivalry,  and,  by  enlisting  the  assistance  of  educated 
mothers  and  daughters,  secure  a  noble  future." 

While  the  women  of  Japan  are  not  treated  with  very 
great  respect  by  the  male  inhabitants,  there  is  an  old  law 
which  has  existed  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  which  is  yet, 


HISTORY    OF   THE    EMBASSY.  53 

in  spirit  and  letter,  rigidly  enforced,  by  which  a  mother, 
in  Japan,  is  held  responsible  for  her  children.  If  they  are 
good,  she  receives  all  the  credit;  if  they  are  bad,  she  is 
punished.  Their  young  minds  are  singularly  free  from  all 
evil  tendencies,  and  it  is  something  almost  unseen  or  un 
heard  of,  to  find  unruly  children.  They  are  singularly 
obedient,  and  are  taught  habits  of  courtesy,  and  an  abid 
ing  faith  in  a  mother's  influence.  The  only  exceptions  to 
this  rule  are  those  naturally  depraved  persons,  who  are  to 
be  found  wherever  the  sun  shines.  In  the  main,  however, 
the  Japanese  race  are  polite,  attractive,  charitable,  and 
noble.  One  of  the  earliest  faiths  instilled  into  the  mind 
of  the  young  of  both  sexes,  is  that  which  forms  so  impor 
tant  a  part  of  their  religious  belief,  and  this  faith  is  incul 
cated  in  them  when  they  are  but  prattling  babes,  learning 
to  lisp  their  own  language. 

The  story  is  that  of  one  of  the  earlier  princesses,  who, 
thousands  of  years  ago,  was  a  ruling  power  in  the  Great 
Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.  Her  virtue,  her  honesty,  and  her 
integrity,  are  discoursed  upon  at  length,  and  the  children 
are  taught  that  they  must  emulate  her  illustrious  example. 
In  order  that  they  may  do  so  there  have  been  placed  in 
different  parts  of  the  islands  temples  to  the  Goddess  Issa. 
In  each  of  these  temples  are  to  be  found  a  precious  stone, 
large,  pure,  and  polished,  a  mirror,  and  a  sharp  sword. 

The  application  is  as  follows  :  They  must  ever  preserve 
their  honor  and  their  virtue  as  a  precious  jewel.  In  decid 
ing  upon  important  questions,  or  in  the  lesser  aifairs  of  life, 
should  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  proper  course  to  pur 
sue,  or  should  they  imagine  they  are  not  acting  as  prompted 
by  the  heart,  they  look  in  this  mirror  and  examine  their 


54  THE    JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

own  eye.  The  eye  being  the  index  of  the  soul,  the  gazer 
can  the  more  easily  determine  the  honesty  of  his  intentions. 
Then,  satisfied  that  he  is  right,  the  seeker  after  knowledge 
takes  the  sword  and  defends  his  faith  to  the  death. 

In  Japan  there  are  but  two  classes  or  grades  of  society, 
those  who  are  of  the  nobility,  and  those  who  are  not.  They 
never  intermingle,  and  it  is  only  the  latter  that  are  ever 
seen  on  the  streets  or  in  public. 

The  wives  of  common  people  will  walk  abroad ;  but  a 
lady  never  goes  except  in  a  close  carriage. 

The  prevalent  pagan  sentiment  of  inferiority  creates  this 
disadvantage.  They  are  completely  subject  to  their  hus 
band's  orders,  and  even  should  he  be  willing  for  his  wife  to 
go  abroad,  the  inexorable  law  of  caste  would  interpose 
objections.  They  are,  in  fact,  in  unwholesome  restraint. 

The  present  experiment  of  sending  females  to  America 
to  be  educated  will  doubtless  prove  a  successful  one,  and 
the  selection  made  would  seem  to  insure  a  happy  result  for 
Japan. 


PAET  II. 


THE  JAPANESE  STUDENTS. 

THE  total  number  of  Japanese  students  who  have  visited 
America  is  estimated  at  five  hundred,  but  the  number  now 
studying  in  this  country  is  about  two  hundred.  They  are 
chiefly  congregated  in  the  New  England  States,  and  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  them  are  supported  by  their  Government,  a 
few  by  their  rich  relatives,  and  perhaps  half  a  dozen  by 
themselves.  Their  annual  expenses  average  about  one 
thousand  dollars,  and  all  the  money  is  received  by  the 
students  through  their  Minister  in  Washington.  The  in 
stitutions  which  they  attend  are  various  in  character,  and 
have  been  selected,  in  each  instance,  so  as  to  meet  the 
peculiar  desires  of  each  student,  in  view  of  his  future  pro 
fession  or  position  under  the  Government ;  and  the  official 
reports  which  are  regularly  sent  to  Washington,  prove 
conclusively  that  the  sons  of  Japan  are  quite  equal  to  those 
of  America  in  their  intellectual  progress,  their  morals,  and 
general  good  conduct.  One  distinguished  teacher  in  New 
England  remarked  that  if  all  the  Japanese  resembled  his 
scholars,  he  would  like  to  move  his  school  to  the  Empire 
of  Japan.  Another  gentleman,  who  had  closely  studied  the 
manners  and  habits  of  the  students  in  his  charge,  on  being 


56  TIJE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

questioned  as  to  his  intention  of  going  to  Japan,  quietly 
remarked  that  he  hoped  so,  because  he  wished  to  improve 
his  own  education  in  some  important  particulars.  Professor 
J.  D.  Butler  of  Illinois,  who  had  the  privilege  of  travelling 
in  the  West,  by  railway,  with  a  party  of  twenty-nine  newly- 
arrived  students,  furnishes  us  with  this  testimony : — "  I  have 
never  seen  a  more  promising  set  of  students.  Each  has  two 
swords — his  badge  of  nobility — but  these  were  almost  all 
packed  up  in  the  baggage,  and  instead  of  such  vanities, 
most  had  books,  each  on  his  seat  or  table  ;  not  merely  guide 
books  and  maps  of  the  route,  but  lexicons,  grammars,  and 
polyglot  phrase-books.  When  weary  of  gazing  at  corn- 
oceans,  and  the  grain  in  harvested  wheat-fields,  each  would 
be  busy  with  his  books  or  writing. 

"  There  was  no  drinking,  no  cards,  nor  any  game.  I 
should  have  thought  myself  in  a  school,  but  for  the  pipes, 
with  bowls  not  half  as  big  as  thimbles,  which  appeared  in 
homoeopathic  smokes."  Commodore  John  L.  Worden,  of 
the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  on  being  questioned  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  Jap 
anese  students  in  that  institution,  gave  a  full  account  of 
their  studies,  and  paid  them  this  compliment : 

"The  conduct  of  the  Japanese  students  has  been,  as  I 
have  stated,  excellent,  and  so  far  from  their  interfering  in 
any  way  with  the  discipline  of  the  academy,  the  example 
they  have  set  of  amiability  and  strict  regard  for  regula 
tions,  has  been  worthy  of  all  praise.  They  have  been  and 
are  now  subject  in  all  respects  to  the  same  rules  and  rou 
tine  as  the  cadet  midshipmen  of  the  academy,  even  to  at 
tending  morning  prayers  and  divine  service  on  the  Sab 
bath.  In  the  latter  regard,  their  seeming  interest  and 


THE   JAPANESE   STUDENTS.  57 

respectful  deportment  is  not  at  all  behind  that  of  their 
Christian  fellow-students.  They  add  nothing  to  the  ex 
penses  of  the  academy,  as  all  charges  are  paid  by  their 
own  Government.  From  the  character  of  the  young  Jap 
anese  who  have  been  admitted  to  the  academy,  the  interest 
they  take  in  their  studies,  and  their  seeming  susceptibility 
to  the  influences  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  I  do  not 
think  I  am  wrong  in  auguring  the  best  results  to  American 
interests  in  Japan,  as  well  as  to  the  common  cause  of 
Christian  civilization,  from  the  wise  provision  of  Congress 
by  which  a  limited  number  of  her  young  men  are  per 
mitted  to  be  educated  at  this  institution." 

Looking  upon  Mr.  Mori  as  their  protector  in  this  coun 
try,  the  more  advanced  students  have  naturally  fallen  into 
the  habit  of  sending  to  him  some  of  the  results  of  their 
school  education,  and  the  papers  which  follow  have  been 
selected  from  the  hap-hazard  collection  thus  made.  The 
opinions  they  entertain  are  as  various  as  their  characters, 
and  we  happen  to  know  that  on  several  occasions  Mr.  Mori 
has  thought  it  his  duty  to  censure  these  students  for  utter 
ing  their  sarcastic  remarks,  for  it  is  his  chief  desire  that 
the  kindest  feelings  should  be  cherished  between  the 
Americans  and  Japanese.  Some  of  the  essays  are  written 
by  very  young  men,  and  many  of  their  apparently  severe 
assertions  were  uttered  more  from  a  love  of  fun  than  from 
unkindness.  If  some  of  them  are  rather  severe  upon  cer 
tain  discreditable  phases  of  American  life,  it  is  because  the 
writers  have  a  quick  eye  to  discover  the  truth,  and  the 
honesty  to  tell  us  what  they  really  believe.  So  far  as  our 
observations  have  gone,  they  enjoy  going  to  the  American 
churches,  and  what  they  sometimes  say  of  religion  does 

3* 


58  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

not  prove  that  they  have  DO  proper  respect  for  sacred 
things,  but  that  they  cannot  overlook  the  fact,  that  mere 
profession  of  Christianity  is  a  delusion  and  a  mockery. 
Nor  can  they  be  indifferent  to  the  fact,  that  some  of  the 
most  deplorable  calamities  and  internal  troubles  in  their 
native  land  have  grown  directly  out  of  the  conduct  of  the 
Roman  Catholics,  in  trying  to  usurp  their  government ;  and 
the  more  cultivated  of  the  people,  as  well  as  the  masses, 
cannot  see  any  great  difference  in  the  designs  or  general 
deportment  of  the  different  Christian  sects.  This  is,  of 
course,  unfortunate,  but  not  strange,  and  the  Americans 
who  come  in  contact  with  the  Japanese  are  in  duty  bound, 
by  their  upright  example,  to  eradicate,  as  time  progresses, 
the  prejudices  against  true  religion  which  prevail  among 
the  Orientals. 

That  the  Japanese  are  very  close  observers  of  character 
and  of  the  ways  of  fashionable  society,  is  pre-eminently 
true,  and  on  this  point  a  single  illustration  occurs  to  us 
which  is  worth  mentioning.  On  questioning  a  resident  of 
Washington  as  to  his  reasons  for  not  going  to  parties,  he 
replied  as  follows  :  "  Because  I  am  not  a  man,  but  only  a 
boy  ;  I  am  over  twenty-one  years  old,  but  mentally  only  a 
boy.  A  jacket  becomes  me  better  than  a  swallow-tail. 
After  I  have  studied  five  or  six  years  longer,  I  may  be 
fitted  for  parties,  for  drinking,  and  smoking,  and  dancing, 
but  not  yet.  When  I  have  become  a  full  man,  I  may  pos 
sibly  indulge  in  such  elegancies.  I  do  not  think  these  are 
the  accomplishments  in  which  my  country  is  anxious  to 
have  me  successful."  Now  this  very  student  is  one  of 
those  whose  hostility  to  sham  churches  cannot  be  over 
come,  and  yet  the  plain,  frugal,  and  unselfish  manner  of  his 
daily  life  is  simply  heroic  and  Spartan-like. 


THE   JAPANESE   STUDENTS.  59 

When  we  come  to  consider  their  intellectual  character 
istics,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  estimate  them  too  highly.  If 
we  may  judge  of  the  gallant  two  hundred,  now  in  this 
country,  by  the  few  specimens  whose  productions  are 
printed  in  this  volume,  they  are  abundantly  able  to  com 
pete  with  students  of  any  other  nationality.  In  their 
native  language  they  are  all  liberally  educated  ;  and  when 
it  is  remembered  that,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  none 
of  them  have  been  studying  English  for  more  than  five 
years,  and  a  large  proportion  not  more  than  one  or  two 
years,  their  ability  to  read,  speak,  and  write  good  Ano;lo- 
Saxon  is  most  amazing.  There  is  one  young  man,  not  yet 
twenty  years  of  age,  a  taste  of  whose  quality  will  be  found 
in  this  volume,  whose  style  of  writing  is  clear,  correct,  and 
pointed,  and  would  serve  as  a  model  for  many  professional 
American  writers,  and  yet  he  has  been  studying  the  Eng 
lish  language  less  than  four  years ;  and  the  thoughts  of 
this  writer  are  quite  equal  to  his  style.  Another  youth, 
who  has  been  in  this  country  only  fifteen  months,  furnishes 
a  paper  which  would  not  be  out  of  place  in  Addison's 
Spectator.  Among  our  contributors  is  one,  a  little  older 
than  the  preceding,  whose  sarcasm,  analytical  style,  and 
comprehensive  views,  must  surely  make  him  a  power  among 
the  rising  statesmen  of  Japan.  If  that  empire  is  to  be 
favored  with  leaders  made  out  of  such  materials  as  we  have 
just  mentioned,  she  may  well  anticipate  a  career  of  intel 
lectual  greatness.  Several  of  the  shorter  essays  that  we 
publish  were  written  by  a  mere  boy,  not  over  fifteen  years 
of  age.  The  ready  adaptation  to  western  forms  of  expres 
sion  which  all  these  essays  exhibit,  forcibly  illustrate  the 
fidelity  with  which  the  Japanese  assume  our  Anglo-Saxon 
characteristics. 


60  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

While  these  Oriental  students  generally  present  rather 
a  demure  appearance,  they  are  fond  of  fun,  and  when 
opportunities  occur,  enter  into  harmless  frolics  with  great 
zest.  One  of  them,  in  a  private  note  which  he  sent  us, 
makes  this  allusion  to  the  advent  of  the  Japanese  girls  : 
"  I  tender  my  sincere  thanks  to  you  on  behalf  of  my 
sisters,  who  are  expected  from  Japan ;  but,  I  pray  you,  do 
not  initiate  them  into  that  western  custom  among  ladies, 
ofhenpecking  their  husbands.  Beyond  the  broad  Pacific 
such  an  awful  thing  must  not  be  practised."  The  same 
young  man,  who  had  gone  to  Boston  to  study  law,  wrote 
the  following :  "  I  succeeded  in  securing  a  private  teacher 
for  each  of  my  three  new  friends,  and  also  their  boarding- 
houses;  but  I  can't  get  any  place  for  myself.  Thoroughly 
disgusted  with  this  state  of  affairs,  I  instructed  my  solici 
tors,  Demosthenes,  Cicero  &  Co.,  Elysium,  to  purchase  for 
my  benefit  an  elegant  residence  on  Beacon-street.  As  I 
was  getting  ready  to  leave  this  noisy  hotel,  and  establish 
myself  in  my  new  residence,  a  most  astounding  answer 
to  my  positive  order  arrested  further  proceedings  on  my 
part.  Substance  of  this  was — Almighty  Dollar  did  not  see 
fit  to  trust  me." 

Another  youth,  from  whose  room  in  a  boarding-house  a 
favorite  book  had  been  taken  away  by  one  of  the  literary 
boarders,  wrote  a  letter  to  his  landlady  to  the  following 
effect  :  "  Is  it  the  custom  of  this  country  to  convey  away 
one's  property  without  asking  ?  I  thought  my  room  was 
my  castle.  I  should  be  very  much  obliged  if  you  would 
acquaint  me  with  any  custom  of  which  I  am  ignorant." 

With  regard  to  the  habits  and  physical  characteristics 
of  the  Japanese  students,  a  passing  word  may  be  accept- 


THE   JAPANESE   STUDENTS.  Gl 

able.  They  dress  handsomely,  but  without  ostentation ; 
they  enjoy  our  American  food,  and  are  generally  very 
temperate  in  their  eating  and  drinking ;  and  a  large  pro 
portion  of  their  spare  cash  is  expended  for  books,  and  such 
things  as  are  calculated  to  elevate  the  mind.  Their  sense 
of  honor  is  exceedingly  acute ;  their  confiding  dispositions 
and  liberality  are  proverbial,  and  hence  they  are  frequently 
imposed  upon  by  unworthy  men ;  while  they  are  by  no 
means  clannish  in  their  feelings,  they  treat  each  other  with 
the  greatest  kindness  and  consideration, — often  excusing 
an  erring  brother,  rather  than  reprimanding  him ;  and  in 
their  deportment  among  themselves  or  strangers,  never 
forget  that  they  are  gentlemen.  With  very  few  excep 
tions,  they  are  all  quite  young, — more  of  them  less  than 
over  twenty  years  of  age, — and,  although  oftentimes  deli 
cately  developed  in  their  persons,  yet  they  enjoy  more 
than  an  average  degree  of  good  health.  Of  all  who  have 
visited  this  country,  we  believe  that  only  three  have  died 
here;  and  this  remark  carries  our  mind,  with  most  touching 
reflections,  to  a  little  spot  of  ground  in  New  Brunswick, 
New  Jersey,  where  these  children  lie  buried,  and  where 
others  of  their  race,  in  future  years,  may  join  them  in  their 
dreamless  sleep,  far,  far  from  their  native  land.  It  is  pleas 
ant  to  know,  however,  that  the  footsteps  of  the  departed, 
under  the  skies  of  America,  are  lovingly  remembered  by 
many  who  knew  them  when  they  were  living,  and  saw 
them  consigned  to  the  little  spot  which  is  the  common 
property  of  the  Japanese  brotherhood  in  this  country. 

But  now,  as  good  examples  are  more  convincing  than 
generalities,  we  propose  to  exhibit  the  pluck  and  enterprise 
and  wisdom  of  the  Japanese  young  men  generally,  by 


62  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

sketching  the  career  of  one  of  their  number.  To  give  his 
name  would  afford  us  the  greatest  pleasure,  but  we  have 
made  a  promise  not  to  do  so,  and,  from  the  excessive  mod 
esty  of  our  friend,  we  expect  to  be  scolded  for  even  mak 
ing  this  allusion  to  him.  But  his  career  has  been  so  re- 

<D 

markable,  we  cannot  refrain  from  giving  the  leading 
particulars  of  his  life, — carefully  avoiding  the  mention  of 
certain  proper  names. 

He  was  born  in  Yedo,  in  1844,  and  after  acquiring  a 
little  learning  in  a  native  school,  studied  navigation,  and 
became  the  secretary  of  a  local  prince,  who  had  purchased 
an  American  ship,  and  was  trying  to  do  business  in  that 
line.  On  one  occasion,  when  this  vessel  was  about  to  sail 
for  Hakodado,  our  young  hero  volunteered  to  go  as  an 
assistant  of  the  native  captain,  whose  knowledge  of  sea- 
navigation  was  limited,  and  in  that  port  he  remained  a 
number  of  months,  supporting  himself  by  teaching  a  priest 
of  the  Greek  Church  the  Japanese  language.  He  there 
became  acquainted  with  an  English  clerk  in  a  commercial 
house,  and  with  his  help  acquired  a  little  knowledge  of  the 
English  language.  To  that  friend  he  spoke  in  confidence, 
and  told  him  that  he  believed  the  Almighty  intended  him 
to  be  of  some  use  to  his  fellow-men,  but  that  he  could  do 
nothing  in  Japan,  and  was  resolved  to  leave  the  country. 
In  due  time,  with  the  help  of  his  friend,  he  found  a  ship  in 
port,  which  was  commanded  by  an  American,  and  bound 
to  China;  he  sold  his  Japanese  clothes,  and  with  the 
money  he  had  earned  by  teaching,  secured  a  passage  on 
the  vessel,  going  on  board  in  the  evening,  and  hiding  him 
self  in  the  cabin  until  she  was  fairly  out  to  sea  on  the  fol 
lowing  day.  When  the  captain  found  his  passenger  a 


THE   JAPANESE    STUDENTS.  63 

mere  boy  of  twenty,  and  well-nigh  destitute  of  means,  he 
arranged  to  let  him  work  his  passage  over  the  Yellow  Sea. 
In  China  he  remained  about  nine  months,  wandering  from 
one  port  to  another,  now  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
Dutch  and  English  languages,  and  then  teaching  a  mer 
chant's  clerk  the  Japanese  language,  or  working  as  a  cabin- 
boy,  and  sometimes  as  a  sailor,  on  board  the  coasting  ves 
sels.  At  Shanghai,  he  became  acquainted  with  the  captain 
of  an  American  ship,  to  whom  he  expressed  a  desire  to  go 
to  America.  The  captain  took  an  interest  in  the  Japanese 
waif,  and  arranged  to  take  him  on  board  as  a  passenger — 
the  passage  to  be  paid  for  by  mending  and  washing  the 
captain's  clothes,  keeping  his  books  and  the  cabin  in  order, 
and  instructing  the  American  in  the  secrets  of  the  Dutch 

& 

language ;  and  in  this  manner  he  made  a  full  payment  for 
his  passage  to  America.  He  arrived  in  Boston,  and  was 
employed  for  about  ten  wreeks  as  a  watchman  on  the 
wharf  where  his  ship  was  lying.  The  captain  had  become 
attached  to  him,  and  introduced  him  to  his  employer. 
That  good  man  asked  the  youth  what  he  wanted  to  do, 
and  the  reply  was,  "I  wish  to  obtain  an.  education." 
Arrangements  were  made,  and  he  was  immediately  sent 
to  an  appropriate  school ;  and  between  an  academy  and  a 
still  higher  institution,  he  has  spent  the  intervening  six 
and  a  half  years,  to  the  present  time. 

From  the  hour  that  this  young  man  first  began  to  study 
he  has  been  animated  with  the  single  thought  of  becoming 
a  preacher  of  the  Bible  in  his  native  land.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  career  as  a  student  he  wrent  to  work  and  trans 
lated  into  Japanese  the  greater  part  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John.  When  he  came  to  the  sixteenth  verse  of  the  third 


64  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

chapter,  it  riveted  his  attention  and  a  new  light  began  to 
dawn  upon  his  mind.  He  felt  that  he  had  never  before 
been  a  true  Christian,  but  now  it  was  as  if  a  great  load 
was  lifted  from  his  back,  and  all  doubts  and  fears  were  at 
once,  and  forever,  cleared  away,  and  the  world  was  full 
of  sunshine.  He  subsequently  always  spoke  of  that  pas 
sage  in  the  Bible  as  his  verse,  and  he  has  never  ceased  to 
wonder  at  the  goodness  of  God  in  protecting  and  keeping 
him  in  a  happy  state  of  mind. 

Very  soon  after  Mr.  Mori's  arrival  in  this  country  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  history  and  position  of  our 
nameless  student,  and  reported  the  same  to  the  Home 
Government,  requesting  that  he  might  at  once  be  made  an 
official  student.  The  request  was  promptly  granted,  the 
offer  made  by  Mr.  Mori,  and  was  very  gratefully  but  de 
cidedly  declined.  The  reasons  assigned  by  the  student  were, 
that  he  wished  to  be  free  and  independent,  to  pursue  his 
long-cherished  idea  of  becoming  a  missionary  in  Japan. 
He  fully  appreciated  the  summons  which  had  been  sent  to 
him  by  his  Government,  declared  himself  as  truly  loyal 
to  the  Tenno  of  Japan,  but  felt  that  he  could  be  a  more 
useful  friend  of  his  race  by  pursuing  the  course  he  had 
marked  out  for  himself, — and  what  was  more — his  highest 
allegiance  was  due  to  that  Great  Being  who  had  thus  far 
been  his  best  friend. 

When  the  Japanese  Embassy  arrived  in  Washington, 
the  student  in  question  was  summoned  to  Washington  by 
Mr.  Mori,  who  renewed  bis  former  proposition,  which  wa& 
again  declined.  His  services  were  needed  in  connection 
with  certain  proposed  plans  connected  with  education ; 
and  on  the  ground  that  he  should  be  treated  as  an  hired 


THE   JAPANESE   STUDENTS.  65 

servant  and  not  as  a  Government  student,  he  went  to 
work  for  Mr.  Mori,  and  acquitted  himself  with  marked 
ability  and  faithfulness;  and  he  was  also  assigned  to  the 
pleasant  duty,  by  the  Embassy,  of  accompanying  the 
Japanese  Commission  of  Education  on  an  exploring  tour 
among  the  educational  institutions  of  the  country. 

With  regard  to  his  future  course  as  a  missionary  and  a 
teacher,  he  is  yet  undecided.  He  hopes,  however,  to  leave 
the  United  States  in  about  one  year  from  this  time.  Should 
he  then  find  that  the  laws  in  Japan  against  missionaries 
have  not  been  relaxed,  he  will  go  and  become  a  simple 
school-teacher  among  his  people,  waiting  patiently  for  the 
time  when  he  can  become  a  teacher  of  the  Bible.  In 
Japan,  as  well  as  here,  he  will  be  free  from  all  govern 
ment  patronage,  and  he  has  an  abiding  faith  that,  when  in 
want  of  funds,  lie  can  always  obtain  an  abundant  supply 
from  the  good  people  of  the  United  States. 

One  more  incident,  illustrative  of  another  phase  of  our 
friend's  character,  and  we  will  close  this  notice.  Leading, 
as  lie  has  now  done,  for  nearly  seven  years,  the  life  of  a 
hard-working  student,  he  has,  of  course,  required  some  re 
laxation.  This  he  has  obtained  by  visiting  the  sea-shore 
or  the  mountains. 

In  the  former  case,  his  favorite  resort  has  been  the  home, 
on  Cape  Cod,  of  the  good  old  captain  who  brought  him  to 
this  country  from  China,  and  where,  until  the  old  sailor 
died,  about  a  year  ago,  he  was  always  treated  as  one  of  the 
f,*rtily.  And  of  his  mountain-tours,  we  can  only  say  that 
one  of  them  was  performed  on  foot  to  the  White  Moun 
tains,  accompanied  by  two  friends,  when  he  was  absent  for 
nearly  six  weeks  and  only  spent  thirty  dollars — three  of 


66  THE    JAPANESE   Itf   AMERICA. 

which  were  paid  out  for  photographic  pictures.  The  pedes 
trians  started  with  a  tent,  but  it  turned  into  an  "  elephant," 
and  so,  after  tramping  about  twenty-five  miles  per  day  with 
knapsack  and  staff,  and  obtaining  their  meals  at  farm 
houses  or  from  the  berry-fields,  they  usually  slept  in  clover, 
in  the  barns  which  were  at  hand  as  the  sun  went  down, 
and  to  which  they  were  always  kindly  admitted.  This 
whole  expedition  was  one  of  great  interest,  and  a  minute 
account  of  it  would  make  an  interesting  volume. 

We  are  sorry  to  say  that  a  promised  essay  from  this  stu 
dent  on  the  importance  of  making  Christianity  the  found 
ation  of  all  intellectual  culture  in  Japan,  was  not  received 
in  time  to  be  printed  in  this  volume. 


STUDENTS'    ESSAYS. 


THE  PRACTICAL  AMERICANS. 
BY  E.  R.  ENOUYE. 

Is  it  a  disgrace  to  the  Americans  that  they  are  a 
practical  people  ? 

Before  entering  into  the  discussion  which  the  theme 
demands,  let  me  define  the  position  from  which  I  am  obliged 
to  look  at  this  delicate  question.  Japan,  before  the  late 
revolution,  was  undoubtedly  the  most  aristocratic  nation  in 
the  world.  As  is  usually  the  case  under  such  circumstan 
ces,  the  down-trodden  mass  of  the  people  strikingly  mani 
fest  that  characteristic  which  is  the  subject  of  my  present 
essay — namely,  an  acquaintance  only  with  those  ways  of 
life  which  relate  to  the  supply  of  the  actual  wants  and 
necessities  of  mankind.  This  is  because,  the  greater  por 
tion  of  the  nation's  wealth  being  in  the  hands  of  the  ruling 
class,  the  lower  classes  have  to  make  the  most  of  every 
thing  within  their  reach.  I,  like  any  other  thoughtless 
born-aristocrat,  despised  this  tendency  of  the  commons.  I 
acknowledge  now  that  this  was  very  unjust,  but  still  some 
thing  of  this  spirit  will  no  doubt  influence  me  in  the  decis 
ion  of  the  great  question  now  before  us,  and  I  request  my 
kind  readers  constantly  to  bear  in  mind  this  circumstance. 

When  Columbus  revealed  to  the  astonished  inhabitants 
of  the  Old  World  this  continent,  with  its  boundless  resources', 


68  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

unappreciated  by  its  simple  natives,  the  terrors  of  the 
yet  unexplored  Atlantic  were  not  sufficient  to  keep  back 
the  bands  of  adventurers  who  soon  flocked  from  all  quar 
ters  to  this  newly-discovered  land.  Disregarding  the  rights 
of  the  original  owners,  they  appropriated  to  their  use  what 
ever  they  could  obtain,  and  it  was  not  long  before  bitter 
quarrels  among  themselves  began.  Mexico  had  its  Cortez, 
Peru  its  Pizarro ;  but  that  portion  of  the  new  continent 
now  the  United  States  of  America  was  contended  for  by 
the  English,  the  French,  and  the  Dutch.  They  settled  in 
various  localities  of  the  country,  and  by  their  conglomera 
tion  was  formed  the  United  States  of  the  present  day. 

The  Americans,  who  unmistakably  inherited  the  virtues 
as  well  as  the  vices  of  their  ancestors,  are  a  nervously  ener 
getic,  enterprising  people.  When  they  threw  oif  the  Brit 
ish  yoke,  what  remained  was  to  develop  the  hidden  re 
sources  of  the  country ;  and  how  well  they  have  performed 
this  the  present  prosperity  of  the  country  sufficiently  attests. 
In  the  course  of  this  stupendous  undertaking  they  were 
being  continually  brought  into  contact  with  new  difficulties, 
and  they  have  always  proved  themselves  equal  to  any  emer 
gency. 

The  world  is  indebted  to  the  Americans  for  the  steam 
boat,  telegraph,  and  many  other  very  useful  inventions.  It 
may  be  broadly  asserted  that  whatever  had  a  practical 
application  was  studied  and  improved  by  them.  A  glance 
at  its  educational  system  enables  one  to  form  some  idea  of 
the  people.  The  cities  have  their  business  colleges,  while 
agricultural  colleges  dot  the  face  of  the  country.  Then 
there  are  schools  of  engineering,  architecture,  medicine, 
and  other  departments  of  the  useful  arts,  and  these  are 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  69 

faithfully  attended  to,  while  the  general  education  of  the 
youths  is  designed  to  make  practical  men.  The  fine  arts, 
which  refine,  ennoble,  and  delight  mankind,  are  sadly  neg 
lected.  The  fact  is,  an  American  does  not  want  to  be  a 
painter,  sculptor,  poet,  or  rhetorician,  but  a  rich  man. 
Wealth  is  the  sole  object  of  ambition  of  the  people  at  large. 
I  must  say  now  that  I  am  entering  on  very  serious  grounds. 
I  am  not  so  presumptuous  as  to  attempt  to  trespass  on 
theology,  but  I  must  confess  I  shall  go  very  near  the  fron 
tiers  of  it.  The  Americans  who  point  the  fingers  of  scorn 
against  the  rest  of  Christendom  as  lukewarm  in  the  cause 
of  religion,  and  freely  condemn  without  fair  trial  the  rest  of 
mankind  as  ignorant  of  the  duties  of  man,  seem  to  think 
that  money-making  is  the  most  important  business  of  life ; 
and,  taking  this  as  a  standard,  I  shall  finish  the  rest  of  my 
essay  accordingly.  It  is  not  possible  that  the  Americans 
should  be  such  enthusiastic  champions  of  Christianity,  and 
yet  reject  its  teachings  in  their  ordinary  life. 

But  Christianity  teaches  them  that  their  souls  live  after 
their  bodies,  and  therefore  they  must  better  the  condi 
tion  of  their  minds  by  the  cultivation  of  virtues  in  this 
world.  The  money-loving  Americans  are  doing  just  the 
opposite  of  this.  So-called  business  men,  who  constitute 
a  large  portion  of  "  the  life  and  the  blood  "  of  American 
society,  seemingly  have  no  souls,  for  they  are  exposed  for 
sale,  if  not  already  exchanged,  for  hard  cash.  When  their 
souls  are  disposed  of  they  receive  the  millions  of  money 
they  desire  ;  but  what  is  to  be  done  with  it  ? 

Without  sympathy,  without  frankness  and  generosity  of 
feeling,  despising  human  nature,  they  have  no  more  use  for 
their  riches  than  the  Peruvians  had  for  theirs  before  the 


70  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

Spaniards  came  to  rob  them.  Some  men  find  delight  in 
the  fine  arts,  in  philosophy,  in  science,  in  the  exercise  of  the 
benevolent  and  social  affections  ;  but  they  have  no  relish 
for  these.  They  can  no  more  detect  beauties  in  them  than 
a  savage  can  appreciate  all  the  intricate  combinations  of 
harmony  in  music.  As  to  religion,  they  consent  to  pay 
their  pew-tax,  and  to  be  bored  by  an  occasional  sermon  on 
Sunday,  for  appearance  sake ;  but  their  real  churches  are 
their  counting-houses,  their  real  bible  their  ledger,  and  last 
of  all,  their 'real  god  is  not  Almighty  God,  but  "the 
almighty  dollar." 

If  money-making  is  the  source  pf  enjoyment  to  them,  as 
drunkenness  and  gluttony  are  to  some  men,  I  have  only  to 
say  that  their  taste  is  a  corrupted  one.  It  is  but  just  to  say 
that  the  riches  of  these  men  are  gained  by  hard,  patient 
labor;  hence  they  are  more  to  be  pitied  than  condemned,  for 
the  question  again  returns,  "  What  is  to  be  done  with  these 
riches,  and  what  have  they  made  themselves  by  the  opera 
tion  ?  " 

Another  set  of  men,  thinking  this  a  rather  unprofitable 
way  of  making  money,  adopt  a  system  which  combines 
both  theft  and  perjury,  and  insures  to  those  men  a  life  of 
misery,  which  they  richly  deserve.  I  refer  to  those  who 
seek  fortune  by  a  lucky  marriage — an  excellent  mode  of 
self-selling  !  A  man  who  is  so  degraded  as  to  go  through 
a  formal  loving  of  an  innocent,  confiding  woman  for  the 
sake  of  her  money,  shows  a  disposition  which,  if  an  oppor 
tunity  presented,  would  sell  country,  religion,  anything  and 
everything  which  mankind  so  sacredly  prizes.  All  these 
things  arise  from  that  intense  love  of  money  which  is  so 
deeply  ingrafted  in  the  hearts  of  the  Americans.  If  they 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  71 

should  pay  more  attention  to  philosophy  and  the  fine  arts, 
they  would  be  far  more  intellectual  as  a  people  ;  but  as  long 
as  they  are  admirers  of  wealth,  no  matter  how  gained,  they 
are  merely  practical  and  inconsistent  people.  Inconsistent, 
because  priding  themselves  on  their  republican  simplicity, 
they  are  the  most  willing  slaves  of  fashion ;  or  pretending 
to  be  true  republicans,  they  are  never  so  happy  as  when 
they  have  an  opportunity  of  paying  respect  to  a  prince  or 
a  duke.  Where  is  the  trouble  ?  The  answer  is  plain. 
They  are  too  practical. 

When  Franklin,  than  whom  there  cannot  be  a  more 
practical  American,  with  all  the  simplicity  of  Cincinnatus 
presented  himself  before  the  court  of  Versailles,  even  the 
ultra-royalists  could  not  withhold  the  veneration  due  the 
man  for  true  dignity,  and  he  commanded  the  respect  of 
even  the  bitterest  enemies.  Compared  with  this  glorious 
spectacle,  the  idea  of  the  Americans  of  the  present  day, 
with  much  money,  trying  to  imitate  the  manners  of  other 
countries  whose  teachers  they  might  well  become,  and  mak 
ing  bad  blunders,  is  really  disgraceful.  In  their  eagerness 
to  educate  all  the  young  persons  to  be  practical,  they 
almost  neglect  their  moral  training.  Man  is  both  an  in 
tellectual  and  moral  being.  lie  must  be  so  educated  as 
to  develop  both  these  capacities.  If  his  intellect  is  trained 
more  than  his  moral  nature,  he  will  be  a  dangerous  man, 
for  his  power  for  evil  is  increased  beyond  measure. 

In  this  connection  I  may  again  observe  a  strange 
inconsistency  of  the  Americans.  Though  they  thus  neglect 
their  moral  training  at  home,  they  send  missionaries  to 
teach  the  wretched  heathen  to  be  good,  a'ft^-SC^n'e  same 
time  send  a  company  of  practical  men  who  show  their 


72  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

practicability  by  extracting  the  riches  in  every  way,  and 
when  they  could,  by  cheating  those  men  whom  their  fel 
low-countrymen  undertake  to  teach — to  be  what? — to 
be  good ! 

So  I  might  go  on,  but  I  think  I  have  said  enough  to 
make  you  acknowledge,  at  least  to  yourself,  that  it  is  a  dis 
grace  to  the  Americans  that  they  are  a  practical  people. 


THE  CHINESE  AMBASSADOR  IN  FRANCE. 
BY  M.  TOYAMA. 

The  dwarf  of  yesterday  is  the  giant  of  to-day.  He  who 
appears  a  dwarf  before  a  giant,  appears  a  giant  before  a 
dwarf.  He  who  behaves  politely,  even  timidly,  before 
a  greater  one  than  himself,  behaves  haughtily  and  confi 
dently  before  a  weaker  one  than  himself.  A  cat  is  to  a 
mouse  as  a  dog  to  a  cat.  M.  Thiers  is  to  the  Chinese 
Ambassador  as  Bismarck  to  Thiers. 

In  the  recent  interview  between  Tchong  Hoan,  Ambassa 
dor  of  the  Great  Empire  of  Tsing,  and  M.  Thiers,  the 
illustrious  President  of  the  great  French  Nation,  the 
heathen  Ambassador  was  taught  by  the  Christian  Presi 
dent  how  in  Christendom  tHe  weaker  is  to  be  kicked  by 
the  stronger.  If  the  speech  by  the  Ambassador  sounds 
very  funny,  with  so  many  pompous  adjectives,  and  so  much 
servility,  the  reply  of  the  President  sounds  so  haughty 
and  commanding  that  there  is  no  doubt  he  has  already 
thoroughly  learned  the  Bismarckian  style  of  addressing  a 
weaker  one,  from  the  frequent  practices  exercised  upon 
himself.  But  Bismarck  makes  a  consistent  speech,  while 
Thiers  m"a*keVan  inconsistent  one. 

Let   me  see  how  he   goes  on.     He  says:  "The  French 


73 

nation  is  too  humane  to  take  pleasure  in  the  shedding  of 
blood."  But  if  there  has  been  any  nation  since  the  crea 
tion  which  has  taken  pleasure  in  the  shedding  of  blood,  it 
is  this  very  French  nation.  Again,  he  says  :  "  It  demands 
only  that  severity  which  is  necessary  to  restrain  the  wicked." 
Well,  if  it  is  so,  the  relations  of  the  victims  of  the  recent 
barbarous  executions  in  France,  in  cold  blood,  would  have 
been  more  fortunate,  arid  a  grand  funeral  procession  would 
never  have  taken  place  in  New  York  on  Sunday,  the  17th 
of  December,  1871.  Again,  he  says :  "Your  Government 
is  too  enlightened  not  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  those 
missionaries — men  of  great  worth — who  expatriate  them 
selves  in  order  to  spread  abroad  throughout  the  world 
principles  of  civilization,  against  whom  evil-disposed  per 
sons  have  not  feared  recently  to  excite  the  popular 
hatred." 

What  is  meant  by  these  merits  ?  Are  they  serviceable 
for  France  or  the  Pope?  And  what  is  their  worth? 
These  missionaries  might  perhaps  be  worth  a  good  thrash 
ing,  for  expatriating  themselves  in  order  to  spread  abroad 
throughout  the  world  superstition  and  sectarian  fanaticism 
instead  of  the  principles  of  civilization,  which  are  directly 
against  their  interest,  and  to  meddle  with  politics,  disturb 
the  authorities,  and  cheat  the  people  under  cover  of  the 
sacred  name  of  religion.  A  great  many  good  authorities 
are  witnesses  to  how  much  mischief  has  been  brought 
upon  the  world,  instead  of  good,  through  the  work  of  those 
French  and  Spanish  missionaries.  It  would  be  a  pity  if 
the  Chinese  Government  is  too  enlightened  to  appreciate  the 
merits  of  these  missionaries.  Suppose  that  they  are  the 
real  ministers  of  the  Gospel.  In  that  case  they  had  better 


74  THE    JAPANESE    IK    AMERICA. 

stay  at  home,  because   their  hard  labor   would  be   more 

\ 

necessary  there  than  anywhere  else.  If  Paris  does  not  re 
quire  as  many  missionaries  as  the  whole  number  among  the 
heathen  Chinese,  Sodom  must  have  been  a  pretty  holy 
place.  Well,  this  is  really  a  conceited  world  ! 

Again,  Thiers  says :  "  The  people  will  respect  the  for 
eigners  when  they  shall  see  their  own  magistrates  treating 
them  with  respect."  If  this  is  true,  M.  Thiers  is  accusing 
himself.  How  can  he  excuse  himself  from  so  many  hard 
complaints  of  outrages  committed  upon  the  Prussians  by 
the  French,  because  this  is  not  done  by  the  French  people, 
but  by  the  French  magistrates  ?  If  such  is  the  case,  no 
compassion  would  be  felt  toward  the  magistrates  for  the 
troubles  arising  from  this  direction,  but  they  ought  to  be 
effectually  punished.  Thiers  might  say  that  the  French 
have  a  great  deal  of  prejudice  against  the  Prussians  ;  so 
the  Chinamen  have  many  prejudices  against  the  foreigners, 
especially  against  those  nominal  Christians  who  might  be 
called  the  Shylockian  Pecksniffs.  It  does  not  always  fol 
low  that  the  magistrates  do  not  respect  foreigners  when 
the  people  do  not  respect  them.  Is  there  any  Government 
which  treats  foreigners  as  respectfully  as  that  of  the  United 
States  ?  Yet  look  at  the  oft-repeated  outrages  committed 
upon  the  Chinamen  by  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
Does  M.  Thiers  think  that  this  is  because  of  the  lack  of 
respect  for  foreigners  by  the  magistrates  of  the  United 
States?  If  even  the  people  of  the  more  cosmopolitan 
United  States,  whose  motto  is  universal  intercourse  among 
nations,  have  such  prejudices  against  some  foreigners,  how 
much  more  could  it  not  be  expected  from  the  ignorant 
people  of  conservative  heathen  China  ?  The  hatred  of 


75 

foreigners  occurs  in  two  cases ;  when  the  people  have  mere 
prejudice  against  them,  and  when  they  have  real  cause  of 
hatred  on  account  of  their  haughty  or  impudent  conduct, 
their  disrespect  to  the  natives,  their  disregard  of  the  laws 
of  the  land,  and,  most  of  all,  their  violation  and  ridicule  of 
their  most  sacred  customs,  which  drive  sometimes  even  the 
more  civilized  people  into  madness. 

But  in  most  cases  these  two  causes  are  joined ;  this  is  at 
least  the  case  with  the  hatred  of  foreigners  in  the  eastern 
countries.  How  can  foreigners  expect  to  be  respected  by 
the  natives  when  they  do  not  respect  the  natives  ?  They 
are  not  to  expect  from  the  heathen  Chinamen  that  they 
should  let  them  smite  their  other  cheek  when  they  have 
smitten  their  right  cheek.  This  is  indeed  too  much  for  the 
heathen.  Here  is  the  merit  of  which  Thiers  spoke.  When 
they  have  converted  the  nations  to  perfect  Christians 
according  to  their  mould,  'and  insinuated  their  passive 
doctrines  into  their  innocent  minds  completely,  then  is  the 
time  when  foreigners  may  smite  both  cheeks  of  the  natives, 
disinter  the  dead  bodies,  kidnap  their  children,  without  in 
curring  any  hatred,  nay,  be  still  beloved  by  them  all  the 
more.  Such  is  the  invaluable  merit  of  those  Roman  Catho 
lic  missionaries.  Then  there  would  be  no  need  of  those 
silver-headed  heavy  canes  for  coercing  the  will  of  the  natives 
summarily.  The  conduct  of  foreigners,  excepting  some  of 
the  better  class  of  the  missionaries  and  a  few  laymen,  is  a 
very  shame  to  the  name  of  Christianity  and  civilization,  and 
retards  the  progress  of  both.  They  do  not  pay  the  prices 
of  things  they  buy,  and  even  the  beat-fares  required  of 
them ;  but  no  sooner  do  they  observe  a  shadow  of  discon 
tent  in  the  face  of  the  person  who  demands  it,  than  the 


76  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

heavy  cane  is  over  his  head.  At  home  such  behavior  would 
be  properly  chastised  by  indictment  for  assault  and  battery, 
but  in  the  eastern  countries  the  European  tyrants  are 
under  the  protection  of  guns  and  powder ;  moreover,  of  that 
sacred  cross  of  St.  George,  or  the  Tricolor.  So  that,  when 
ever  they  treat  a  native  outrageously,  if  he  do  not  lose  his 
senses  he  would  keep  his  anger  to  himself,  because,  if  he 
resent  it,  the  fate  of  his  darling  country  would  be  endanger 
ed  even  by  the  loss  of  a  single  hair  of  theirs. 

There  is  no  mystery  in  the  fact  that  Christianity  has  not 
made  any  considerable  progress  beyond  Europe,  when  we 
know  that  those  Christians  who  go  out  to  foreign  countries 
behave  themselves  worse  than  the  heathen,  or,  at  least,  no 
better  than  they.  First  of  all  they  are  the  slaves  of  Mam 
mon,  go  to  houses  of  ill-repute,  swear  without  almost  any 
cause,  insult  the  natives,  kick  and  beat  them,  and  behave 
as  haughtily  as  Julius  Ca3sar.  Moreover,  these  things  take 
place  on  Sunday  more  than  any  other  day  of  the  week, 
because  on  other  days  they  have  things  of  more  material 
interest  to  attend  to. 

It  is  in  vain  that  some  really  good  Christians  try  to  per 
suade  the  natives  that  Christianity  is  the  true  religion  of 
God,  while  they  are  beset  on  all  sides  by  these  splendid 
specimens  of  nominal  Christians ;  and  when  they  look  back 
at  their  conduct  they  would  not  find  any  reason  why  they 
should  feel  particularly  ashamed  before  Christians.  A  trai 
tor  is  worse  than  an  enemy.  Yet  these  nominal  Christians 
are  such.  How  can  one  be  blamed  when  he  cannot  find  out 
the  right  way,  when  he  has  no  guide  ?  But  how  could  one 
be  excused  when  he  goes  a  wrong  way  by  his  own  perverse- 
ness  and  wicked  intention,  when  he  has  a  sure,  infallible 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  77 

guide  ?  The  eastern  nations  could  not  help  being  heathen, 
because  they  had  no  good  guide  to  take  them  to  the  right 
path.  But  among  the  western  nations  was  there  not  an  in 
fallible  guide  who  sacrificed  himself  for  their  sake?  Those 
who  call  themselves  Christians,  yet  behave  quite  unlike  them, 
are  far  worse  than  the  pure  heathen  ;  while,  if  there  were  no 
such  mock  Christians,  Christianity  would  have  made  its 
progress  smoothly.  It  loses  credit  through  their  conduct 
among  the  ignorant  heathen,  and  its  progress  is  thus 
obstructed.  Woe  to  the  betrayers  of  the  Master  !  If  He 
should  appear  in  this  world  at  this  time,  He  could  scarcely 
recognize  his  own  people.  Oh  !  Has  He  shed  his  blood  in 
vain  !  May  we  hope  that  God  will  forbid  that  !  We  can 
get  over  any  difficulty  when  we  are  in  earnest.  Our  way  is 
always  open  when  we  are  willing.  Lack  not  your  will,  that  is 
the  only  passport  to  pass  the  gate  !  Let  those  true  Chris- 
tinns  who  are  going  to  enter  the  gate,  and  wish  to  take  with 
them  as  many  fellow-creatures  as  they  can,  pay  more  atten 
tion  to  their  followers,  purify  their  camp  first,  then  go  out  to 
the  expedition.  A  rotten  root  can  never  bear  a  good  fruit. 
But  I  have  digressed  too  much.  Te  return  to  the  for 
eigners  talked  about  by  M.  Thiers.  I  think  that  before  the 
Frenchmen  can  teach  the  Chinamen  how  to  respect  foreign 
ers,  they  should  first  learn  how  to  do  so  themselves,  because 
it  was  for  their  want  of  such  respect  that  they  were  lately 
caught  by  the  Prussians.  Perhaps  Thiers  has  learned  the 
evil  consequences  of  this  want  of  respect  for  foreigners,  by 
his  recent  experience,  and  may  have  spoken  with  a  true 
kindness,  lest  China  might  meet  with  the  same  misfortune. 
But  I  am  afraid  that  although  the  President  has  learned  to 
respect  the  stronger,  he  has  yet  little  respect  for  the  weaker, 
as  I  do  not  find  much  respect  for  the  foreigner  in  his  late 


78  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

speech  addressed  to  the  Chinese  Ambassador.  Even  the 
Indian  Commissioner  here  in  the  United  States  addresses 
the  Indians  in  more  respectful  words. 

Thiers  also  says:  "It  is  again  the  province  of  the  Chinese 
Government  to  show  by  its  attitude  and  by  its  proceedings, 
with  respect  to  diplomatic  and  consular  agents,  the  extent 
of  the  special  consideration  which  is  due  to  their  public 
character,  by  virtue  of  the  rules  universally  received  among 
all  nations." 

There  is  nothing  to  be  said  if  this  is  reciprocal.  Why,  is 
there  not  likewise  a  proper  conduct  for  diplomatic  and  con 
sular  agents  universally  received  among  all  nations  ?  They, 
as  the  more  civilized  people,  should  first  set  an  example  as 
to  the  decorum  to  be  observed. 

But,  in  the  eastern  countries,  many  Catacazys  would  go 
with  impunity. 


CO-EDUCATION  OF  BOYS  AND  GIRLS. 

BY  SHIOJI  TAKATO. 

In  music,  there  ate  a  thousand  instruments,  each  differing 
from  the  other  in  its  pitch  and  sound.  The  object,  however, 
is  not  to  separate  them,  but  to  unite  and  harmonize  them, 
so  as  to  produce  an  enchanting  melody,  which  can  never 
be  obtained  from  any  single  sound.  So  the  object  of  God 
in  creating  all  things  and  beings,  and  giving  them  forms  and 
characters  differing  one  from  another,  is,  no  doubt,  to  unite 
them  and  produce  a  temperate  and  accomplished  whole.  The 
burning  wind  of  the  tropics  uniting  with  the  freezing  blasts 
from  the  poles,  causes  the  mild  and  temperate  clime,  where 
spring-flowers  smile  and  spontaneous  products  grow.  God 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  79 

has  given  the  man  a  character  bold  and  strong;  the  wo 
man,  one  mild  and  gentle,  differing  one  from  the  other  as 
the  piercing  sound  of  the  flute  from  the  soft  tones  of  the 
harp.  His  object  is  evident  in  itself,  and  requires  no  solu 
tion.  Look  at  the  nations  who  are  treating  woman  as  a 
slave  or  as  instrument  of  their  sport,  they  are  very  low  in 
their  civilization,  and,  like  wild  beasts,  are  constantly  biting 
and  fighting. 

From  the  law  of  God,  and  the  instances  furnished  by  those 
nations,  I  see  then,  clearly,  that  the  characters  of  the  sexes 
must  blend  and  help  each  other ;  or  otherwise  great  discord 
in  the  music  of  nature  will  be  the  result.  Female  colleges 
and  academies  are  excellent  and  important  institutions  ;  but 
they  have  nothing  to  do  in  the  matter  of  tempering  the 
characters  of  the  sexes.  Only  in  co-education  of  the  sexes 
can  we  secure  both  ends  at  once:  the  cultivation  of  their 
intellects  and  the  harmonizing  of  their  characters.  In  thus 
co-educating,  we  teach  them  in  the  same  school,  by  the  same 
professors,  and  with  the  same  books ;  therefore,  during  the 
entire  session,  from  day  to  day,  and  from  month  to  month, 
the  opinions  and  purposes  of  the  sexes  will  gradually  and 
naturally  harmonize ;  the  saucy  mischievousness  of  the  boys 
will  be  tempered  by  the  gentle  politeness  of  the  girls,  and 
the  vain  fancy  and  timid  weakness  of  the  girls  will  take  on 
the  primitive  simplicity  and  determined  steadiness  of  the 
boys ;  and,  at  last,  a  moderate,  accomplished,  and  unblem 
ished  virtue  and  culture  will  be  attained  by  both  the  sexes. 
Some  say,  the  wives  of  officers  have  nothing  to  do  in  the 
offices,  and  the  wives  of  merchants  do  not  interfere  with  the 
business ;  consequently,  for  woman  there  is  no  need  of  such 
an  education  as  that  required  for  man.  The  opinion  is 


80  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

worthy  of  the  farmer  in  the  old  story,  who,  thinking  that 
the  trees,  and  not  the  ground,  bore  the  fruits,  scattered  his 
fertilizers  over  the  leaves  and  boughs  of  the  trees,  and  left 
the  ground  unenriched  and  uncultivated.  But,  ere  his 
boast  of  the  new  economical  invention  spread  to  his  neigh 
bors,  all  his  trees  had  died.  If  we  are  able  to  make  the 
world  fruitful  by  cultivating  man  only,  leaving  woman  a 
desert,  the  trees  of  the  farmer  should  have  borne  the  fruit. 

When  a  tree  is  young  it  easily  bends ;  a  pin  for  a  post 
and  a  thread  for  a  rope  are  enough  to  twist  it  into  any 
shape.  A  small  rivulet  can  be  stopped  or  led  in  any  direc 
tion  without  difficulty,  even  by  a  single  hoe  in  the  hand  of 
a  child.  But  after  the  tree  has  grown  into  a  towering 
trunk,  with  its  boughs  mingling  with  clouds ;  or  after  the 
rivulet  has  become  a  mighty  river  with  billows  on  its  sur 
face,*  and  carrying  down  millions  of  tons  of  soil  every  year, 
nothing  in  the  world  can  either  stop  the  one  or  bend  the 
other.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  if  we  teach  men  from  their 
youth,  the  effort  will  be  successful,  and  we  have  no  doubt 
of  success  in  the  attempt  to  harmonize  the  sexes  by  co-edu 
cating  them  from  their  youth.  The  great  disadvantage  of 
co-education,  as  urged  by  many,  is  that  it  will  make  young 
gentlemen  and  ladies  too  intimate,  and  occasion  objection 
able  associations. 

But  what  is  the  province  of  the  school,  and  what  are  the 
subsequent  relations  of  the  sexes?  The  school  is  not  the 
place  in  which  reading  and  ciphering  alone  are  to  be  taught, 
and  the  subsequent  relations  of  the  sexes  is  not  to  be  that 
of  opposition  and  isolation.  It  seems  then,  to  mo,  very 
foolish,  that  men  should  attempt  to  prevent  the  occurrence 
of  injuries  by  keeping  their  children  separated  closely  one 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  81 

sex  from  the  other.  Two  country  people  once  caught  two 
young  foxes  and  brought  them  home  to  domesticate;  A  put 
his  fox  into  a  yard  with  domestic  fowls ;  while  B  kept  his 
closely  hidden  away  from  the  sight  of  fowls,  fearing  that 
the  fox  would  catch  them.  But  to  the  surprise  of  B,  A's 
fox  did  no  harm  to  the  fowls,  but  played  with  them,  and 
slept  with  them,  though  it  grew  big  and  strong.  So  B,  fol 
lowing  the  example  of  A,  let  his  fox  loose  and  free  among 
the  fowls  that  had  been  kept  away  from  its  eyes.  But 
again,  to  his  surprise,  his  fox  caught  one  of  the  fowls  and 
fled  away  with  it.  If  we  co-educate  the  sexes  from  their 
youth,  as  A  did  his  young  fox  and  fowls,  I  am  certain  that 
they  will  agree  and  dwell  in  concord,  and  no  trouble  will 
occur,  provided  the  rules  in  the  school  are  perfect  and  care 
fully  observed.  But  if  we  should  follow  the  policy  of  B,  I 
am  afraid,  or  rather  sure,  that  at  the  time  when  the  sexes 
reach  their  full  age  and  are  set  free,  the  pic-nic  and  the 
party  will  become  a  scene  of  wrong  and  a  field  of  shame,  as 
when  B's  fox  ran  at  large  among  the  fowls  of  the  yard. 


ORIENTAL  CIVILIZATION. 
BY  YASHIDA  HICOMARO 

[  A  Dissertation  delivered  at  the  Annual  Exhibition  at  Monson  Academy.  This 
student  is  probably  better  read  in  Latin  and  Greek  than  any  other  of  the  Japanese. 
On  account  of  his  impaired  health  he  was  obliged  to  visit  Europe,  and  has  since 
returned  to  Japan.] 

Since  the  time  when  the  world  was  proved  to  be  spherical 
in  form,  by  its  circumnavigation  by  Magellan,  the  terms 
oriental  and  occidental  have  not  been  used  with  strictly 
scientific  accuracy ;  for  the  United  States  of  America  are 
east  of  Japan,  and  yet  Japan  is  called  an  oriental  nation, 

though  in  fact  it  is  occidental  in  relation  to  them. 

4* 


S3  THE    JAPANESE    IX    AMERICA. 

Notwithstanding  this  geographical  absurdity  in  their  ap 
plication,  still  these  terras  have,  in  history  and  literature,  a 
signification  which  is  well  enough  understood,  since  the 
term  oriental  designates  those  countries  and  whatever 
belongs  to  them,  which  are  south  and  east  of  the  Black 
Sea,  while  all  Europe  and  the  American  Continent  are 
spoken  of  as  occidental. 

It  is  an  evident  and  remarkable  fact,  that,  throughout  the 
East,  a  striking  uniformity  exists  as  to  the  type  of  civiliza 
tion  called  oriental,  relating  to  ideas,  customs,  habits,  and 
manners,  though  it  includes  many  different  races,  nation 
alities,  and  religions.  So  there  is  in  the  general  character 
of  western  or  occidental  civilization  a  general  uniformity 
which  is  very  evident. 

Why  there  is  that  marked  distinction  in  the  character 
of  a  people,  which  is  expressed  by  these  general  terms  of 
locality,  1  cannot  understand.  The  difference  in  the  local 
condition  and  character  of  mankind  are  infinite,  and  can 
not  be  determined  definitely. 

We  know  what  changes  are  produced  by  the  vicissitudes 
of  time ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  infinite  diversity  in  the 
condition  of  mankind,  we  know  that  human  nature  is  the 
same  everywhere  and  always ;  that  there  is  unity  in  the 
consciousness  of  mankind  in  all  places  alike ;  and  all  are  ani 
mated  with  love  and  hatred,  with  grief  and  fits  of  passion. 

Men  in  every  land  have  conscience,  or  the  power  to  judge 
what  is  right  or  wrong  in  acts.  Integrity  is  as  highly  val 
ued  in  Japan  as  in  the  western  nations.  In  the  great  cities 
of  the  West,  such  as  London,  Paris,  and  New  York,  the 
degraded  classes  are  not  unlike  those  who  live  in  the  great 
emporiums  of  the  East,  such  as  Calcutta  and  Yeddo. 


Persons  not  conscious  or  reflective,  are  apt  to  treat  un 
fairly  and  unjustly,  with  conceited  biases  and  prejudices, 
such  facts  as  these.  Bound  as  I  am  by  so  much  love  and 
sympathy  for  the  oriental  country  to  which  I  belong,  I  may 
carry  philosophy  too  far,  and  flatter  too  much  the  civiliza 
tion  of  the  East ;  and  yet  I  cannot  but  regard  the  East  as 
being  the  cradle  of  civilization,  and  as  the  earliest  source 
of  light  of  every  kind  which  relates  to  the  arts  and 
philosophy. 

The  eastern  nations  mirrored  forth  their  intellectual  life 
before  Greece  and  Rome  began  to  exist,  and  long  before 
other  European  nations,  whether  Teutonic  or  Celtic,  were 
anything  but  strictly  barbarous,  being  buried  in  utter  dark 
ness  and  ignorance.  Long  before  the  ages  of  improvement 
in  the  West,  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  endowed  by  the  Cre 
ator,  were  not  undervalued  in  the  East.  The  metaphysical 
speculations  of  India,  and  the  theologico-philosophical  doc 
trines  of  the  Yedas,  were  not  surpassed  by  the  Greek  or 
Roman  writers.  The  uninspired  wisdom  of  Confucius  made 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  divine  morality  of  the  gospel. 
The  rationalistic  discourses  of  Loo  reached  a  climax  of 
excellence.  The  pantheistic  theory  of  the  philosopher 
Hagel  was  understood  in  the  East  very  early. 

It  is  certain  that  very  long  ago  in  the  East  there  were 
many  theories,  systems  of  philosophy  battling  each  other 
with  various  forms  and  principles,  just  as  we  now  see  these 
conflicts  going  on  to-day  in  the  western  world. 

By  this  I  infer  that  the  theories  of  social  life,  and  ideas 
or  opinions  concerning  philosophy,  metaphysics,  morality, 
and  theology  must  continue  to  battle  each  other  as  they 
always  have,  from  the  earliest  times ;  that  opinions  and 


84  THE   JAPANESE   IX   AMERICA. 

systems  will  conquer  and  be  conquered,  will  rise  and  fall 
again  and  again,  as  the  history  of  the  human  mind  and  hu 
man  nature  shows  in  all  ages  and  countries,  East  and  West. 

We  trust  and  earnestly  hope  that,  by  and  by,  this  pro 
cess  of  struggles  will  bring  all  thinking  minds  into  a  cer 
tain  equilibrium  as  to  the  matters  of  belief  and  right  action, 
though  that  end  we  have  come  far  short  of,  as  yet. 

If  we  turn  now  and  ask  for  reasons  why  Asia,  long  the 
seat  of  so  much  mental  activity  and  conflict,  and  the  source 
of  so  many  systems  of  philosophy,  should  now  be  sunk  into 
such  utter  darkness,  why  the  progress  in  philosophy  made 
in  ancient  time  should  now  be  checked,  and  why  social  life 
in  all  its  forms  and  institutions  should  now  be  confined,  as  it 
were,  by  mechanical  rules,  there  are  many  reasons,  of 
course,  to  account  for  this ;  such  as  despotic  government, 
the  organization  of  caste,  the  vain  formalities  of  social 
etiquette,  which  are  each  and  all  especially  paralyzing  in 
their  influence,  and  so  preventing  the  progress  of  civiliza 
tion.  But  the  greatest,  the  most  specific  and  essential 
obstacle  of  all  which  retards  and  holds  us  back,  is  the  total 
absence  of  freedom  in  the  spirit  and  in  the  mind  of  the 
people.  This  lack  of  freedom  has  tended  to  the  result 
which  in  turn  has  become  a  great  hindrance  to  pro 
gress,  that  is,  a  want  of  that  flexible  and  versatile  character 
of  mind  which  once  so  distinguished  the  Greeks,  and  is 
not  wanting  among  modern  occidental  nations.  If  this 
want  of  flexibility  and  versatility  must  remain  as  the  fault 
of  the  eastern  nations,  then  they  must  decay  continually. 
Social  stagnation  and  utter  decline  is  the  great  danger  of 
our  people,  unless  they  are  shaken  out  of  this  lethargic  con 
dition  by  some  vehement  convulsion. 


85 

We  look  to  the  western  nations  for  this  hoped-for 
wakening  power.  The  steamship^  railway,  and  telegraph, 
are  pushing  their  mighty  forces  further  and  farther  into  the 
profundities  of  oriental  life.  The  quickening  effects  of 
western  activity  and  enterprise  are  felt  everywhere,  and 
are  causing  rapid  and  more  surprising  changes  in  many 
respects.  As  to  the  final  result,  western  influence  on 
the  national  character  and  civilization  of  the  East  no 
doubt  will  work  counter  changes,  and  have  great  reactive 
power.  History  has  shown  us  that  changes  in  civilization 
have  been  intensely  slow  in  their  beginning,  and  often 
very  rapid  in  the  latter  stage  of  assimilation. 

I  firmly  hope  that  the  people  of  my  native  land  will  soon 
incorporate  many  of  the  noble  ideas  and  principles  of  the 
western  world  into  our  own  institutions  ;  especially  that 
we,  as  a  nation,  may  be  able  to  penetrate  and  understand 
the  eternal  truth  of  God  and  his  great  providential  scheme. 
Then,  I  trust,  our  ancient  civilization  will  become  more 
noble  than  ever  before,  and  especially,  so  I  trust,  that 
the  great  empires  of  the  East  will  cherish  and  maintain  a 
magnanimous  spirit,  so  that  they  may  forget  and  forgive 
every  injustice  long  practised  by  some  of  the  western  na 
tions;  and  also  remember,  with  amity  and  good-will, 
the  kindness  of  those  nations,  especially  the  people  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  who  desire  to  do  them  good. 


86  THE   JAPANESE    IK   AMERICA. 

HISTORY  OF  JAPAN. 

BY  T.  MEG  ATA. 

[The  subjoined  was  delivered  as  a  Lecture  before  the  Lyceum  of  West  Newton, 
Massachusetts.  Tanetarow  Megata  is  about  twenty  years  of  age,  and  has  been  in 
this  country  only  since  October,  1870.  He  speaks  English  very  fluently,  and  writes 
a  neat,  bold  hand.  He  has  here  given  the  first  lecture  ever  spoken  by  a  Japanese 
in  this  or  any  other  land.  His  subject  was  "•  Japan,  its  History,  Recent  Reforms, 
and  Present  Social  and  Religious  Condition."] 

The  great  crusading  array  that,  with  the  power  of  all 
Europe,  planted  its  cross  in  the  East,  brought  back  no  news 
from  the  extremest  East.  Marco  Polo,  the  great  traveller 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  first  mentioned  the  existence  of 
the  islands  lying  in  groups  east  of  China,  by  the  name  of 
Zipango.  He  says,  in  his  great  story,  that  the  country  is 
fertile  and  abounds  in  gold,  silver,  and  other  valuable  metals. 
This  was  the  first  time  that  the  existence  of  the  islands  came 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  world.  Though  in  a  later  time  the 
Portuguese  and  Dutch  came  to  the  islands  for  trade,  yet 
there  was  no  intercourse  with  other  nations  until  about 
nineteen  years  ago,  when  the  doors  that  kept  the  nation 
without  being  known  to  others  were  knocked  at  by  the 
hands  of  Commodore  Perry,  who  was  sent  from  this  coun 
try  to  make  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  us.  The  name  of 
Japan,  by  which  it  is  now  known,  arose  from  some  mistake 
among  foreigners.  The  whole  islands  are  known  among  the 
natives  by  the  name  of  Niphon,  which  is  given  by  foreign 
ers  to  the  largest  island  of  the  group.  The  real  history  of 
the  country  goes  as  far  back  as  600  B.C.,  when  there 
reigned  an  emperor  who,  coming  from  the  western  part 
of  the  country,  subjected  it  entirely  to  his  dominion,  and 
became  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty  of  the  Mikado. 
Some  time  previous  to  this  emperor  there  was  another  by 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  87 

the  long  name  of  Ten-show  Dai-jin,  which  means  "the  great 
spirit  of  the  celestial  splendors."  This  emperor  is  believed 
to  be  the  true  founder  of  the  present  dynasty  of  the  Mi 
kado,  as  well  as  of  the  religion  of  Sinto.  But  his  history 
being  old  and  obscure,  we  take  the  former  for  the  first  era 
of  the  history  of  Japan.  From  this  emperor,  who  reigned 
as  far  back  as  600  B.C.,  our  present  Mikado  is  descended. 
The  present  Mikado  is  the  127th  monarch  of  this  noble 
family.  This  is  the  singularity  of  our  imperial  family,  and 
causes  us  to  respect  it  with  utmost  love.  As  for  the  relig 
ion  of  the  country,  there  are  several  sects.  First,  Sinto ; 
second,  Buddhism :  third,  Confucianism ;  the  latter  of 
which  can  hardly  be  called  a  religion,  as  it  does  not  teach 
about  the  worship  of  any  god.  Of  the  religion  of  Sinto,  its 
founder  was,  as  I  said  above,  the  Emperor  Ten-showT  Dai- 
jin.  This  old  religion  teaches  about  the  worship  of  One 
Supreme  Being.  Though  it  admits  the  \vorship  of  other 
deities,  yet  it  never  makes  idols.  This  religion  has  a  great 
resemblance  to  the  Grecian  mythology.  Divine  honors  are 
paid  to  meritorious  emperors  and  other  personages.  Those 
who  taught  this  religion  lived  in  the  same  way  as  the  com 
mon  people  did.  They  had  their  houses  near  the  divine 
temple  and  attended  its  Avorship.  But  they  are  now  abol 
ished.  Their  temples  are  left  in  ruin  ;  their  estates  have 
been  confiscated.  Second  is  the  Buddhist  religion,  which 
Avas  introduced  from  Corea  during  439  A.D.  It  had  once 
a  great  power  in  the  country.  This  religion  is  divided  into 
eight  different  sects,  each  differing  in  doctrine  more  or  less, 
but  believing  in  the  same  faith. 

The  lecturer  then  gave  a  concise  history  of  Japan  from 
the  most  remote  periods  to  the  recent   revolution   and   the 


88  THE   JAPANESE   IN"   AMERICA. 

changes  introduced  by  the  intercourse  with  foreigners.  He 
then  continued :  Since  the  revolution  the  institutions  of  our 
Government  have  undergone  a  complete  change,  and  now 
resemble  those  of  America  or  the  other  countries  of  Europe. 
The  Government  is  divided  into  eleven  different  depart 
ments.  The  Prime  Minister  and  privy  councils  constitute 
the  Cabinet  of  the  Mikado.  The  House  of  Representatives 
is  an  important  part  of  the  Government.  It  is  similar  to 
the  Congress  at  Washington.  Each  province  of  the  Em 
pire  sends  its  delegates  to  the  capital,  as  each  State  in  this 
country  sends  its  delegates  to  Washington.  Like  India,  or 
some  other  country  of  Asia,  the  people  of  Japan  were 
divided  into  a  certain  number  of  castes.  They  were 
divided  into  four  different  classes,  viz. :  First,  military  class  ; 
second,  husbandmen  or  farmers ;  third,  mechanics  and  art 
ists  ;  fourth,  merchants.  Among  these  castes  there  existed 
great  distinctions  of  customs  and  feeling.  Their  occupa 
tions  were  hereditary.  The  son  followed  the  occupation  of 
his  father.  The  military  class  used  to  enjoy  more  privi 
leges  than  the  rest,  and  were  supported  by  revenues  paid  by 
their  tenants.  The  class  of  husbandman  or  farmer  ranked 
higher  than  the  other  two.  Different  from  other  countries, 
in  Japan  the  resources  of  the  Government  and  the  people 
were  obtained  from  the  taxes  laid  on  the  products  raised  by 
the  husbandman  more  than  those  on  other  articles  of  mer 
chandise.  From  these  circumstances  they  ranked  higher 
than  the  other  two  classes.  These  distinctions  of  caste  are 
most  disadvantageous  in  a  nation.  They  create  a  different 
feeling  among  them.  During  the  last  few  years,  however, 
these  things  have  been  rapidly  changing.  The  costume 
of  our  people  was  rather  peculiar.  We  wore  long  and 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  89 

loose  robes.  The  climate  of  the  country  being  mild,  our 
clothes  were  rather  for  covering  than  protecting  our  bodies. 
So  it  was  a  common  thing  for  us  to  go  out  bareheaded. 
There  were  few  distinctions  between  the  clothes  of  men  and 
vomen.  The  ceremony  of  marriage  and  death  bore  rather 
different  characters  from  those  of  other  nations.  In  mar 
riage  the  most  important  thing  is  to  get  the  consent  of  the 
parents,  or,  in  some  cases,  that  of  other  relatives,  without 
which  the  law  would  not  protect  them.  Before  the  mar 
riage  both  the  bride  and  bridegroom  choose  a  gentleman 
and  lady  as  the  proposers  of  the  marriage.  Then  a  pres 
ent  of  a  dry  fish  and  some  flax  are  exchanged  between  the 
parties.  This  custom  shows  the  simplicity  in  which  our 
forefathers  lived,  and  warns  both  to  live  in  harmony  and 
frugality.  At  the  appointed  day  the  bride  is  taken  to  the 
house  of  the  bridegroom.  The  proposers  of  the  parties  pre 
side  on  the  occasion.  The  chief  ceremony  is  then  per 
formed,  viz.:  the  bridegroom  takes  a  glass  with  drops  of 
wine  and  offers  it  to  the  bride,  which  is  returned  to  him 
again.  After  the  ceremony  a  banquet  is  given,  which  is 
followed  by  music  and  dancing.  The  ceremony  of  the 
burial  of  the  dead  is  rather  similar  to  that  of  other  coun 
tries.  The  late  political  revolution  has  produced  an  entire 
change  in  social  affairs.  The  whole  country  has,  since  that 
time,  undergone  a  complete  change.  That  strong  feudal 
ism  that  had  its  sway  over  the  country  during  the  eight 
centuries,  was  abolished  in  a  single  year  without  shedding 
of  blood.  At  the  same  time  the  power  of  the  Mikado, 
which  was  absolute  before,  became  very  much  limited. 
The  reformation  of  education  was  made.  Our  Government 
stimulates  education  by  a  sort  of  compulsory  system,  and 


90  THE    JAPANESE    IN    AMERICA. 

sends  out  its  students  to  foreign  countries  to  bring  back 
the  acquirements  of  others.  At  present  there  are  about 
400  or  800  students  abroad  pursuing  their  course  of  studies. 
The  building  of  railroads  and  telegraphs  is  encouraged. 
The  object  of  Europeanizing  or  Americanizing  the  country 
is  executed  with  rapid  success.  The  changes  which  had 
taken  place  during  the  last  nineteen  years,  since  the  opening 
of  the  country  to  foreign  intercourse,  are  entirely  new  to 
the  eyes  of  the  people  who  were  born  some  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago.  When  we  knew  not  others,  we  felt  ourselves 
proud  and  superior ;  but  when  we  know  them,  we  feel  our 
inferiority,  and  struggle  to  take  the  same  step  with  them. 
We  owe  much  to  the  United  States.  The  United  States 
was  the  country  that  entered  first  into  a  treaty  with  us ;  or, 
I  say,  that  the  United  States  was  the  country  that  awak 
ened  us  from  our  sleep.  We  are  like  a  man  who,  waking 
late  from  his  sleep  in  the  morning,  goes  to  work  hastily. 
We  have  slept  too  much.  But  we  have  now  waked  up 
from  our  long  sleep.  We  are  struggling  to  trace  the  same 
road  of  civilization  wherein  you  have  advanced.  Happy 
will  be  Japan,  when  she  attains  her  desire  to  teach  the 
highest  degree  of  civilization  for  which  she  aims. 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  01 

CHRISTIANITY  IN  JAPAN. 

BY  TOZABRO  HYASII. 

[The  writer  of  the  following  account  of  the  Christian  religion  in  Japan  acquir 
ed  his  knowledge  of  the  English  language  in  America  as  well  as  Europe,  and 
after  his  return  to  Japan,  was  employed  as  a  clerk  and  interpreter  at  the  American 
Legation,  in  Yeddo.  The  facts  communicated  by  him  were  drawn  forth  by  a 
request  made  by  the  American  Minister,  and  by  him  transmitted  to  the  Depart 
ment  of  State  in  Washington,  in  1871.] 

In  reply  to  your  request  for  me  to  state  to  you  in  brief 
what  I  know  about  the  history  of  Christianity  in  Japan, 
and  the  present  condition  of  native  Christian  converts,  I 
beg  leave  to  state  :  That  about  the  sixteenth  century  Chris 
tianity  was  propagated  with  so  much  success  in  the  coun 
try,  that  the  Tycoon,  Nobunagaya  himself,  is  said  to  have 
confessed  his  belief  in  the  faith.  A  certain  essential  part 
of  a  castle  is  always  built  in  imitation  of  the  steeple  of  a 
Christian  church,  which  the  chief  of  the  castle  at  times 
used  as  a  place  of  worship.  This  part,  which  is  called 
"  Tenshu,"  (meaning,  dedicated  to  the  Heavenly  Lord,) 
continued  to  be  built  long  after  the  prohibition  of  Chris 
tianity  in  this  empire,  thus  proving  that  this  religion  was 
still,  for  some  time,  tolerated  among  natives. 

The  Christian  missionaries,  seeing  their  growing  influence 
over  the  consciences  of  the  people,  commenced  to  meddle 
with  the  politics  of  the  state,  whereupon  the  Dutch  warned 
our  people  of  the  danger  from  this.  Acting  upon  this  sug 
gestion,  the  Government  prohibited  its  propagation,  and 
compelled  all  foreigners,  except  the  Dutch,  to  leave  the 
country. 

At  the  siege,  and  subsequent  fall  of  Osaca,  the  final  vic 
tory  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Tokungawa  family  was  gained, 
and  many  leading  officers  who  were  in  the  city  escaped  to 


92  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

Shunabarra,  near  Nagasaki,  where  the  people  generally 
professed  Christianity,  and  excited  them  to  open  insurrec 
tion,  by  deluding  them  into  the  belief  that  the  Government 
intended  to  prohibit  Christian  worship.  Those  people, 
laboring  under  this  delusion,  rebelled  against  the  Govern 
ment,  and  maintained  their  position  for  over  two  years ; 
and  soon  after  they  were  overcome  they  still  continued  to 
be  rebellious  and  fanatical,  mixing  their  religious  belief 
with  party  spirit.  This  caused  the  Government  to  take 
steps  to  prohibit  this  worship  entirely  throughout  the 
empire  ;  therefore,  on  this  account,  land  not  on  account  of  the 
belief  itself,  it  was  prohibited.  This  is  further  proved  to 
have  been  the  motive  by  the  fact  that  Buddhism  was  not 
also  prohibited,  which  is  not  the  faith  of  the  Mikado,  he 
being  Sintoo  in  his  faith.  These  things  occurred  about  the 
year  1630. 

At  the  time  Commodore  Perry  entered  Yeddo,  the 
Tycoon  made  the  treaty  with  him  in  opposition  to  the  sen 
timents  of  the  several  of  the  great  daimios,  who,  having 
long  been  jealous  of  the  Tokungawa  clan  (of  which  the 
Tycoon  was  a  member),  took  advantage  of  the  anti-foreign 
sentiment  of  the  people,  then  prevailing,  and  pretending 
also  to  make  war  to  uphold  the  religion  of  the  Mikado, 
rebelled  against  and  overthrew  the  Tycoon,  and  put  his 
majesty,  the  Mikado,  on  the  throne  in  his  stead.  In  fact,  they 
made  use  of  the  Mikado  as  a  puppet,  to  execute  their  desires 
in  his  name,  and  seemingly  by  his  authority. 

The  present  Government,  owing  to  its  declarations,  was 
necessarily  severe  against  any  who  followed  any  foreign 
religion.  Against  those  who  professed  Buddhism — which 
being  generally  professed  in  the  Empire — they  took  meas- 


STUDEHTS'    ESSAYS.  03 

ures  only  against  the  priests,  who  were  deprived  of  many 
privileges  hitherto  granted  to  them. 

Whatever  promises  may  have  been  made  by  it  relative 
to  the  mild  treatment  accorded  to  native  converts,  their 
punishment  continues  to  be  severe  and  cruel. 

Under  the  late  Government  the  punishment  was  the  cru 
cifixion  of  the  convert,  but  by  the  law  of  this  Government 
the  punishment  extends  over  eight  families,  to  wit :  parents, 
grandparents,  elder  and  younger  brothers  and  sisters, 
uncles,  aunts,  sons,  daughters,  grandchildren,  and  male 
and  female  cousins  of  the  convert,  and  is  death.  It  cer 
tainly  has  done  away  with  the  punishment  by  crucifixion, 
but  simply  doing  this  can  hardly  be  called  mild  treatment. 

Those  converts  who  were  imprisoned  year  before  last 
would  have  been  killed  according  to  this  law,  but  for  the 
remonstrances  of  the  foreign  representatives.  They  are 
yet  kept  in  close  confinement. 

jjc^s}:***** 

In  reply  to  your  request  for  me  to  give  you  the  definition 
of  the  term  "  Heidi,"  I  have  to  say  :  The  Emperor  of  Japan 
gives  a  certain  title  to  the  year  when  he  ascends  the  throne, 
and  thus  counts  the  years  of  his  reign  as  first,  second, 
third,  fourth,  etc.,  of  such  title.  Formerly,  if  there  occur 
red  during  the  course  of  his  reign  any  great  calamities, 
such  as  great  earthquakes,  famines,  tempests,  etc.,  he  would 
change  the  title,  and  commence  to  count  the  years  anew 
from  that  time,  thinking  the  title  unfortunate  and  produc 
tive  of  bad  results.  This  superstition  was  originally  intro 
duced  here  from  China  about  one  thousand  two  hundred 
years  ago.  The  usage  has  been  so  long  in  force  here 
that  the  people  have  become  accustomed  to  it.  "  Meidi  "  is 


94  THE  JAPANESE   IK   AMEKICA. 

the  title  given  to  the  year  by  the  present  Emperor  at  his  suc 
cession  to  the  throne,  which  was  four  years  ago,  this  being 
the  fourth  year  of  "  Meidi." 

By  the  present  law  of  this  empire,  our  Emperor  is  not 
allowed  to  name  the  year  but  once  during  his  reign  ;  there 
fore  the  present  title  "  Meidi,"  which  means  "  peace,"  after 
enlightened  manners,  will  continue  until  the  present  Em 
peror  dies. 


THE  STRENGTH  AND  THE  WEAKNESS  OF  REPUBLICS. 
BY  E.  R.  ENOUYE. 

THE  republican  form  of  government  is  no\v  generally 
conceded  to  be  "  theoretically  the  best,"  but  its  claim  to  be 
also  the  strongest  is  still  disputed,  or  at  least  not  yet  firmly 
established.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  by  the  Ameri 
can  Colonies,  the  French  Revolution,  and  various  impor 
tant  subsequent  events,  until  the  present  time,  all  unite  in 
proclaiming  to  the  nations  of  the  world  the  right  of  a  peo 
ple  to  govern  itself,  and  by  so  doing  demonstrated  clearly 
the  absurdity  of  the  divine  rights  of  the  kings  to  rule. 

The  whole  political  heaven  is,  as  it  were,  being  charged 
with  republican  electricity.  The  explosion  will  come 
sooner  or  later.  Meanwhile,  the  diffusion  of  intelligence 
among  the  people  makes  them  more  enlightened  and  more 
jealous  of  their  rights  than  ever  before  ;  despots  tremble  on 
their  thrones,  and  as  they  make  concessions  most  reluctantly, 
most  readily  do  the  people  call  for  more.  Judging  from  such 
circumstances,  it  would  appear  that  all  the  nations  of  the 
world,  as  if  by  common  consent,  are  converging  rapidly 
toward  that  point  where  Republicanism  reigns  supreme. 


STUDENTS'    ESSAYS.  95 

It  is  then  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us  to 
endeavor  to  discover  in  what  lie  the  strength  and  the 
weakness  of  republics. 

Nothing  is  more  plain  than  the  theory  of  a  republican 
government. 

There  is  a  body  politic  composed  of  so  many  citizens. 
It  is  an  impossibility  for  the  members  of  a  State  to  assem 
ble  in  a  body  to  make  their  laws ;  hence  they  elect  a  certain 
number  of  the  citizens  as  their  representatives,  who  trans 
act  business  for  the  whole  people. 

In  a  republic,  every  citizen  is  interested  in  any  measure 
before  the  government,  and  it  would  be  safe  to  set  this 
down  as  one  of  the  great  elements  of  strength. 

The  government  is  influenced,  to  a  great  extent,  not  by 
the  opinions  of  a  king,  or,  what  is  worse,  those  of  a  few 
ambitious  politicians,  but  by  the  mighty  voice  of  an  almost 
infallible  people.  It  is  evident  that  the  government  thus 
situated  will  be  more  faithful  in  the  execution  of  its  duties 
than  in  monarchical  countries,  where  the  character  of  the 
government  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  disposition  of  the 
sovereign.  Another  strong  point  in  a  republic,  is  the 
bicameral  feature  of  its  government.  One  body  acts  as  a 
check  on  another,  and,  if  their  characters  are  different,  for 
instance,  the  first  radical,  and  the  second  conservative, 
the  course  of  legislation  will  be  neither  too  progressive, 
with  which  the  people  cannot  keep  pace,  nor  so  conserva 
tive  as  to  interfere  with  the  enterprises  of  the  country. 
The  right  to  struggle  for  fame,  for  learning,  and  wealth,  is 
the  grandest  heritage  of  humanity,  and  this  right  is  most 
scrupulously  respected  in  almost  all  the  republican  coun 
tries  of  the  present  day;  hence,  the  poorest  and  humblest 


96  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

can  have  fair  play  to  become  superior  in  position  to  any 
other. 

This  state  of  things  keeps  the  people  ever  in  activity. 

We  can  hardly  think  it  otherwise.  In  whatever  direction 
an  individual  may  go,  his  energies  for  the  advancement  of 
his  position  in  life,  his  actions,  are  fettered  by  no  arbitrary 
laws,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  every  encouragement  is  given 
to  him  for  the  success  of  his  enterprise.  If,  thus  favorably 
situated,  men  are  poor,  it  is  no  fault  of  the  government,  but 
their  own.  What,  perhaps,  exerts  a  most  powerful  influence 
in  the  aifairs  of  the  republic  is  undoubtedly  a  spirit  of  com 
petition.  The  highest  honors  of  the  State  are  within  reach 
of  the  meanest  citizen.  Men  love  honor,  and  we  are  sorry 
to  add,  they  love  wealth  and  power  just  as  much  as  honor, 
if  not  more ;  hence  the  perpetual  struggle  for  the  offices  of 
the  country.  As  a  very  few  succeed,  they  will  be  qualified 
for  their  posts,  at  least  intellectually,  if  not  morally.  We 
said  perhaps  not  morally,  because,  in  the  tortuous  way 
which  a  politician  takes  to  the  object  of  his  ambition,  he  too 
often  treads  on  the  grounds  which  are  clearly  forbidden  by 
his  conscience.  The  government  composed  of  such  mate 
rials  cannot  fail  to  be  strong.  If  the  government  of  the 
Jacobins  was  guilty  of  the  most  atrocious  deeds,  it  was  be 
yond  all  question  the  most  energetic  body  which  France, 
perhaps  the  world,  ever  saw.  In  order  to  appreciate  the 
enormous  amount  of  work  which  that  body  accomplished, 
we  must  hastily  glance  at  the  position  of  France  at  that 
time. 

The  whole  circuit  of  France  was  begirt  with  enemies. 
Disunion  within  and  difficulties  without  did  not  stop  here. 
Her  commerce  was  destroyed  by  the  invincible  navy  of 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  97 

Great  Britain.  The  provisions  were  scarce.  Never  was  a 
country  in  such  an  appalling  condition.  How  they  encoun 
tered  and  overcame  these  difficulties  we  shall  not  discuss. 
If  we  go  back  a  few  years  in  the  history  of  the  world,  we 
shall  find  the  true  strength  of  republicanism  displayed  in  the 
American  war.  We  do  not  purpose  to  look  at  that  memo 
rable  contest  in  all  its  bearings,  but  will  content  ourselves 
with  an  observation  illustrating  one  of  the  secrets  of  the 
success  of  the  Americans.  Every  historian  has  dwelt  with 
enthusiasm  on  the  retreat  of  Washington  through  New  Jer 
sey  with  a  few  thousand  of  the  barefooted  and  famishing 
soldiers.  Wa-s  it  the  devotion  to  their  illustrious  com 
mander  which  enabled  those  brave  men  to  encounter  so 
cheerfully  the  manifold  dangers  of  that  disastrous  campaign  ? 

No,  noble  Washington  did  much,  but  the  real  strength  of 
the  army  lay  in  the  fact,  that  every  soldier  was  also  a  citi 
zen,  imbued  with  a  hatred  of  the  tyrant,  and  conscious  of 
lighting  in  the  cause  of  freedom  and  humanity. 

When  we  see  so  much  dignity  in  common  soldiers,  we 
shall  not  be  dazzled  by  the  sublime  spectacle  of  the  Revo 
lutionary  Congress  defying  the  power  of  the  strongest 
nation  in  the  world,  often  fleeing  before  the  victorious  foe, 
yet  firm  and  unyielding,  and,  at  last,  after  a  long  struggle, 
giving  the  country  a  glorious  peace,  and  placing  her  by  the 
side  of  the  proudest  rfetions  of  the  world  ! 

Thus  far,  we  have  looked  at  the  strong  sides  of  the  re 
public.  Now  we  shall  investigate  some  of  the  causes  of  its 
weakness.  "  When  you  assemble  a  number  of  men  to  have 
the  advantage  of  their  joint  wisdom,  you  inevitably  assem 
ble  with  those  men  all  their  prejudices,  their  passions,  their 
errors  of  opinion,  their  local  interests  and  selfish  views." 


98  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

The  history  of  every  republic  too  clearly  illustrates  the 
above  remarks  of  Franklin.  Grant  that  all  the  legislators 
chosen  are  conscientious  men ;  they  determine  to  be  true 
to  their  sacred  trust.  But  alas  !  they  do  not,  nay,  cannot, 
agree  as  to  the  best  method  of  promoting  the  interests  of 
their  constituents,  for  nothing  is  dearer  to  a  man  than  his 
theory ;  and  especially  is  this  true  of  such  upright  men  as 
we  suppose  them  to  be.  And  then,  a  particular  member, 
in  pleading  the  cause  of  his  constituents,  may  badly  inter 
fere  with  carrying  out  of  a  measure  which  will  be  beneficial 
to  the  whole  people  as  a  nation.  It  may  be  contended  that 
the  majority  will  rule  ;  but,  if  our  supposed  member  happen 
to  be  also  an  influential  man,  he  may  so  exert  his  powers 
as  to  cause  the  very  majority  to  enter  into  his  views. 

Now,  for  the  working  of  the  machinery  of  the  govern 
ment  by  such  persons.  A  good  deal  of  valuable  time  is 
consumed  in  making  a  law  for,  not  saying  of  the  various 
forms  being  attended  to  ;  the  members  advance  their  respec 
tive  opinions,  some  of  which  are  at  direct  variance  with 
one  another.  It  may  be  all  right  in  a  time  of  profound 
peace,  but  there  are  times  when  the  destinies  of  a  state 
depend  on  the  passing  moments.  To  deliberate  under  such 
circumstances  will  not  only  be  foolish,  but  ruinous.  To 
remedy  this  evil,  the  ancient  Romans  found  it  necessary  to 
create  the  office  of  dictator.  We  h'ave  hastily  glanced  at 
the  bright  side  of  the  republican  institution,  and,  as  regards 
its  strength,  we  are  not  very  well  satisfied  with  our  obser 
vation. 

This  is  the  case  when  we  supposed  that  all  the  legislators 
are  honest  and  sagacious  men.  Throwing  this  Utopian 
vision  aside,  let  us  look  at  the  stern  realities. 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  99 

In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  admitted  that  the  officers  of 
a  republic  are  not  always  the  best  and  ablest  men  of  the 
land,  but  that  they  sometimes  are  the  most  cunning,  per 
haps  the  most  unprincipled. 

By  the  most  unprincipled,  we  refer  to  that  class  of  poli 
ticians  called  demagogues.  These  persons  rarely  succeed 
in  securing  the  confidence  of  the  respectable  portion  of  the 
people,  and  when  they  do  so,  they  cannot  retain  it  long. 

To  the  mere  outsiders,  they  would  seem  to  be  wholly 
incapable  of  doing  any  serious  injury  to  the  state.  But 
when  we  study  the  effect  of  their  proceedings,  we  shall  be 
very  likely  to  change  our  opinion.  Too  often  have  the 
glories  of  the  state  been  tarnished  by  the  disgraceful  con 
duct  of  these  men,  too  often  their  impudence,  vulgarity, 
and  recklessness  have  so  prevented  an  enlightened  states 
man  from  carrying  out  his  plans,  that  they  deserve  to  be 
set  down  as  at  once  worse  than  traitors. 

At  the  head  of  this  class  of  men  stands  Alcibiades,  the 
name  closely  connected  with  the  events  which  resulted 
in  the  ruin  of  the  Athenian  greatness.  Lavishly  endowed 
by  nature  with  the  qualities  of  a  great  soldier  and  states 
man,  the  darling  of  the  Athenian  democracy,  graceful  and 
beautiful,  in  fact,  with  all  the  means  of  being  the  first 
man  and  the  greatest  benefactor  of  his  country,  he  proved 
himself  its  meanest  trickster,  its  most  mischievous  citizen. 
In  a  republic,  a  constant  change  of  officers  exerts  a  very 
baneful  influence,  and  is  the  cause  of  bitter  political  and 
party  strife.  Thus  there  can  be  no  stability  in  the  govern 
ment.  And  the  stability,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  an 
important  element -of  the  strength. 

Beholding  a  republic   with  her  weakness  and  strength 


100  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

before  us,  and  a  monarchy  with  hers  in  the  same  position, 
we  shall  fear  the  latter  as  our  enemy,  for  she  is  strong,  but 
the  former  we  shall  love  as  we  love  the  truth ;  we  shall 
encourage  as  we  would  an  inexperienced  youth,  for  her 
strength  is  not  yet  as  fully  developed  as  that  of  her  elder 
sister,  monarchy ! 

JAPANESE  COSTUME. 
BY  K  KANDA. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  both  nobility  and  peasantry  in 
Japan  to  walk  in  the  street  without  wearing  anything  on 
their  heads,  while  the  Europeans  wear  hats  or  caps  out  of 
doors.  But,  in  the  summer,  when  the  sun  is  very  hot,  only 
the  men  wear  large  rounded  hats  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  to  protect  their  faces  from  being  burnt  by  the 
sun.  And  the  women  carry  parasols  which  are  always 
made  of  paper,  and  often  men  carry  them  too.  They  have 
two  kinds  of  umbrellas,  one  for  protecting  them  from  the 
hot  sun  in  the  summer,  and  the  other  for  the  rainy  weather, 
called  an  "  amagasa,"  which  is  also  made  of  paper,  and 
afterwards  spread  over  with  a  certain  oil,  and  dried.  In 
the  cold  winter  days,  the  men  and  women  wear  almost  the 
same  kind  of  covering  over  their  heads.  They  are  some 
times  made  of  soft  crape  and  sometimes  of  camlet,  and  are 
made  in  different  styles.  But  one  of  them  I  will  explain. 
This  is  made  in  the  shape  of  a  Shaker-bonnet,  only  not  so 
stiff,  and  it  has  a  little  longer  cape.  Now,  I  will  describe 
how  the  men  dress  their  hair  as  well  as  I  can.  It  is  a 
good  deal  longer  and  coarser  than  that  of  the  .European. 

They  keep  it  long,  for  they  want  to  arrange  it,  and 
coarse,  because  they  shave  their  fine  hair  in  childhood. 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  . 

The  hair  of  the  men  is  generally  arranged  by  a  barber 
once  in  two  days,  with  a  quantity  of  hair-oil,  and  so  they 
don't  comb  their  hair  every  morning.  It  is  almost  of 
equal  length,  and  is  tied  or  arranged  in  an  indescribable 
manner,  and  it  is  commonly  shaved  off  the  width  of  two 
inches  from  the  forehead  to  the  top  of  the  head,  which  is 
generally  done  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  The  hair  of  the 
women  is  gathered,  and  tied  in  bunches,  smaller  than  those 
of  the  Europeans.  And  they  tie  around  it  beautifully 
dyed  crapes  and  red  corals,  and  stick  through  it,  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  the  long  four-cornered  tortoise-shell  pin, 
made  by  putting  a  number  of  them  together,  and  warming 
and  pressing  them,  till  the  whole  appears  like  one  pin  of 
shell,  and  it  is  then  polished.  I  have  now  written  all  about 
their  heads,  and  I  will  next  speak  of  their  bodies. 

There  is  not  much  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  common 
dresses  of  the  ladies  and  gentlemen.  But  there  is  a  differ 
ence  in  the  noble  ladies'  dresses,  which  have  trails  like 
those  of  the  European  ladies.  But,  of  course,  there  is  a 
difference  in  the  materials,  almost  as  much  as  there  is  in 
the  Europeans'. 

The  dresses  are  made  very  long,  which  are  about  as  long 
as  the  length  of  the  vest  and  pants,  and  are  twice  as  wide 
as  the  common  European  coat.  The  sleeves  are  like  large 
flowing  sleeves,  only  sewed  about  half-way  up  to  the  arms, 
forming  a  pocket.  The  dresses  are  made  of  different  mate 
rials,  according  to  the  different  ranks.  The  dress  of  the 
nobility  is  sometimes  made  of  silk,  and  sometimes  of  crape, 
while  the  people  of  the  lower  class  wear  dresses  of  calico, 
or  something  of  the  kind.  Both  nobility  and  peasantry 
wear  belts  of  different  material  around  their  waists,  as  the 


J.03'-,.  THE    JAPANESE    IN    AMERICA. 

former  and  latter  wear  different  dresses.  It  is  a  kind  of 
sash,  being  about  four  yards  long,  and  about  four  inches 
wide.  It  is  doubled  and  stiffened. 

Japanese  did  not  wear  such  tight-sleeved  under-shirt 
as  is  now  generally  worn.  However,  it  was  their  own  cus 
tom  to  wear  a  kind  of  drawers  under  their  robes  in  the 
winter.  It  was  generally  made  of  silk  or  a  cheaper  mate 
rial,  and  was  dyed  dark-purple,  or  gray,  or  some  other 
colors,  but  never  white,  nor  red,  nor  any  light  color.  They 
wear  socks  of  cotton,  which  are  generally  fastened  to  feet 
by  means  of  strings  or  clasp.  The  women  always  wear 
white  socks,  and  the  men  wear  very  dark  purple-colored 
ones.  It  is  made  so  that  big  toe  is  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  toes,  in  order  to  hold  between  them  a  thono- 

'  C3  " 

by  which  the  shoes  are  fastened  to  feet.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  shoes,  almost  as  many  as  there  are  in  America. 
The  general  name  for  articles  worn  on  their  feet  is  "  haki- 
mono."  Under  the  head  of  "  haki-mono,"  there  are  "  ama- 
geta,"  which  means  rainy  shoes,  and  are  worn  in  rainy 
weather  only.  They  are  only  made  little  higher  than 
those  which  are  worn  in  clear  weather ;  and  "  hiyori-geta," 
which  are  worn  in  clear  weather,  and  "  koma-geta,"  which 
are  also  worn  in  clear  weather.  "Koma-geta"  is  like 
those  mentioned  before,  made  of  wood,  but  of  one  piece 
of  wood,  and  cut  into  the  shape  of  the  shoes  mentioned 
before.  They  are  both  made  without  anything  on,  and 
with  mats  of  ratan  made  for  the  purpose.  "Zori,"  whicli 
are  made  of  straw  only,  are  always  worn  in  dry  weather, 
and  are  worn  generally  by  attendants  when  they  go  along 
with  their  masters.  "  Setta,"  which  are  worn  by  both 
nobility  and  peasantry,  are  made  better  than  "  zori/' 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  103 

though  it  is  also  made  of  straw,  and  have  leather  of  some 
animal  under  them. 


A  FATHER'S  LETTER 
BY  Gk  NEERO. 

[Giobu  Neero  is  the  name  of  a  gentleman  who  resides  in  the  Province  of  Satsuma 
Japan,  and  who  was  formerly  a  Cabinet  Minister  under  the  Prince  of  that  famous 
province.  He  belongs  to  a  noted  family,  and  was  one  of  the  first  men  in  that  Em 
pire  who  advocated  a  change  in  the  policy  of  the  nation,  from  a  state  of  semi-bar 
barism  to  one  of  civilization.  He  took  no  part  in  the  Jate  Japanese  Revolution, 
and  has  never  been  anxious  to  be  connected  with  the  general  government.  In 
18<)5,  on  jiccoiuit  of  his  high  character  and  rare  abilities,  he  was  commissioned  by 
his  Government  to  take  charge  of  sixteen  young  Japanese  boys,  with  whom  he 
visited  Europe,  and  whom  he  located  at  various  institutions  of  learning.  One 
of  those  boys  is  the  present  charge  d'affaires  from  Japan,  Mr.  Arinori  Mori.  On 
his  return  to  Japan,  Giobu  Neero  immediately  arranged  to  send  his  son  to  France 
to  be  educated,  and  the  following  letter,  written  in  the  latter  part  of  1871,  was  sent 
to  that  son  by  his  devoted  and  noble-minded  father.  It  was  originally  written  in 
the  charactor-as  well  as  letter-language  of  Japan,  and  the  present  is  a  literal 
translation.] 

I  have  received  your  letter  dated  February  19,  1871.  I  am 
greatly  pleased  to  learn  of  your  progress  in  educational 
matters  and  health.  It  was  unlike  the  former  letter.  It 
seems  that  you  have  come  to  know  that  I  do  not  like  to 
receive  from  you  presents  and  the  like,  and  this  accords 
with  my  views  precisely.  You  have  said  nothing  about 
the  great  war.  This  shows  that  you  are  earnest  in  your 
studies,  and  it  is  my  sincere  hope  that  you  should  so  con 
tinue.  It  is  now  five  years  since  I  have  seen  you.  As  you 
have  reached  your  sixteenth  year,  it  is  proper  for  me,  at 
this  epoch  of  your  life,  when  you  are  entering  upon  the 
more  important  objects  of  your  career,  to  address  you  with 
kindest  feeling.  First,  it  is  a  parental  duty  that  a  man 
should  sacrifice  his  beloved  son  for  the  sake  of  his  country. 
Regretting  that  we  have  no  proper  educational  system  in 
Japan,  I  have  had  fears  that  my  son  might  grow  up  with- 


104  THE   JAPANESE   IK   AMERICA. 

out  education.  It  was  quite  unexpected  that  I  should  have 
been  appointed  to  go  abroad  in  the  Spring  of  1865. 
During  the  voyage  I  witnessed  an  incident  at  Singapore, 
which  I  will  relate.  There  were  among  the  passengers  a 
husband  and  wife,  with  three  children  under  seven  years 
of  age ;  they  had  embarked  in  our  mail-steamer,  and  when 
it  was  announced  as  ready  to  depart  this  husband  and  wife 
were  in  utter  distress,  with  sad  faces  and  many  tears.  The 
wife  remained  on  the  steamer  with  the  children,  while  the 
husband  had  to  return  to  the  shore,  in  a  sorrowful  state  of 
mind.  At  the  sight  of  this,  two  hundred  and  fifty  passen 
gers  were  struck  with  grief.  There  was  a  perfect  silence, 
as  all  on  board  knew  the  circumstances ;  but  our  Japanese, 
although  strangers  among  foreigners,  and  having  no  knowl 
edge  of  the  language,  were  influenced  to  sympathize  with 
the  party,  and  we  also  shed  tears.  I  asked  one  of  the 
passengers  as  to  the  particulars,  and  he  told  me  that  this 
family  were  Dutch ;  they  had  been  staying  a  long  time  in 
Singapore,  and  their  children  were  born  in  that  place. 
The  parents  having  determined  that  their  children  should 
receive  a  good  education  in  their  native  land  of  Holland, 
and  knowing  that  Singapore  was  not  the  proper  place  for 
them,  their  object  was  to  educate  their  children  so  that 
they  might  love  them  more,  and  so  they  had  sacrificed  all 
their  affections  and  comfort  and  pleasure  for  them.  This 
struck  me  with  great  force.  Even  a  small  nation  like  Hol 
land  was  so  anxious  to  have  her  children  educated,  and 
Holland  knows  her  children  would  do  great  things.  This 
influence  induced  the  husband  to  be  satisfied  with  parting 
from  his  wife  and  sacrificing  his  happiness.  Thus,  I  came 
t<>  appreciate  those  great  western  nations,  like  England 


105 

and  France,  where  civilization  has  attained  the  highest 
point,  and  where  there  is  no  lack  of  education  ;  and  it  was 
then  I  determined  to  send  my  son  to  those  countries.  I 
arrived  in  London  after  a  voyage  of  more  than  two  months, 
and  I  employed  the  time,  when  not  engaged  in  official 
business,  in  the  cause  of  education,  and  I  learned  the  real 
condition  of  it,  which  was  all  wonderful  to  me.  I  solved 
the  whole  problem  in  regard  to  the  education  of  my  son. 
As  I  thought  England  and  France  were  like  two  hands, 
left  and  right,  both  essential  to  civilization,  I  thought  I 
would  send  my  two  sons,  one  to  each  of  these  countries. 
But,  during  my  stay  in  London,  the  sad  news  reached  me 
that  your  brother  had  died,  and  my  grief  was  great.  My 
mind  was  then  wholly  set  upon  yourself  alone.  It  was  my 
great  anxiety  to  find  a  teacher  for  you.  I  met  a  French 
gentleman,  Mr.  Montblanc,  and  I  told  him  my  views,  and 
that  I  desired  you  should  be  acquainted  with  political 
economy  chiefly.  He  understood  me  well,  and  assured  me 
he  would  do  his  best  for  you.  The  above  is  a  brief  history 
of  my  anxiety  and  efforts  in  your  behalf. 

You  were  not  sent  abroad  to  come  back  soon,  certainly 
not  before  the  accomplishment  of  your  education.  I  desire, 
after  you  have  finished  your  studies,  that  you  should  visit 
different  countries  and  places  in  enlightened  Europe.  You 
should  also  visit  Pekin,  in  China,  when  you  return.  I  am 
not  satisfied  with  your  knowledge  of  the  French  alone, 
but  you  should  also  become  acquainted  with  the  English 
language.  All  these  particulars  Mr.  M.  understood  and 
agreed  to  fulfill. 

Second.  When  I  returned  home  from  Europe  I  begged 
my  parents  to  send  you  abroad,  and  it  was  gratifying  to  me 

5* 


106  THE   JAPANESE   I^T   AMERICA. 

that  they  were  so  deeply  interested,  and  granted  their 
consent  at  once.  It  was  not  only  a  blessing  to  you  alone, 
but  to  me  also.  You  were  then  only  eleven  years  old,  and 
you  had  no  knowledge  of  my  earnest  desire.  There  was  a 
strong  effort  made  to  stop  the  movement  by  friends  and 
relatives,  because  of  your  age,  and  also  because  of  the 
recent  loss  of  my  second  son.  But  I  succeeded  with  great 
difficulty  in  appeasing  their  anxiety.  It  was  indeed  the 
blessing  of  heaven  that  you  could  leave  home  and  could 
go  over  the  sea  ten  thousand  miles  away  for  such  a  pur 
pose.  This  should  be  borne  in  your  mind  deeply. 

Third.  The  principal  object  of  education  is  to  do  our 
most  for  the  benefit  of  one's  country.  We  use  Chinese 
characters  in  our  country  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  let 
ters  we  have  are  also  derived  from  the  Chinese.  As  those 
Japanese  you  meet  abroad  will  use  Japanese  or  Chinese, 
and  it  will  be  inconvenient  for  you  not  to  understand  them, 
it  was  my  great  fear  that  you  might  be  induced  to  think 
you  should  learn  those  languages  in  order  to  become  ac 
quainted  with  Japanese  affairs.  This  is  a  most  important 
time  for  you.  You  should  be  aware  of  the  great  object 
of  the  future,  and  not  to  be  occupied  in  trifling.  You 
should  have  your  whole  mind  on  western  education.  It 
will  not  be  too  late  for  you  to  learn  Japanese  and  Chinese 
after  your  return  home.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  you  should  not  be  confused  on  this  subject. 

Fourth.  For  the  few  communications  I  have  made  to 
you  there  is  some  reason.  It  is  from  my  deep  love  for  you. 
It  is  quite  natural  for  one  who  is  still  young  to  think  of 
home  when  he  is  in  a  distant  land,  but  communications 
from  home  do  more  harm  than  good,  because  they  are  apt 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  107 

to  excite  the  feelings,  and  hence  disturb  your  studies.  You 
parted  with  your  mother  when  you  were  not  quite  three 
years  old,  and  have  been  brought  up  since  in  my  bosom 
alone.  How  could  my  love  for  you,  under  such  circum 
stances,  be  less  intense  ?  You  should  not  mistake  me  for 
so  rarely  communicating  with  you. 

Fifth.  Your  cousin  in  London  felt  lonesome  and  wished 
to  have  another  Japanese  for  a  companion.  This,  to  me, 
was  a  great  mistake,  and  I  will  avoid  it  in  your  case.  You 
should  carefully  remember  that  you  have  gone  abroad  for 
a  great  purpose.  You  are  expected  to  have,  therefore,  the 
highest  aims  in  regard  to  the  future.  It  impressed  me 
deeply  when  I  learned  that  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  when 
very  young,  was  asked  by  his  mother  about  his  object  in 
life,  and  said,  "  that  he  would  like  to  have  all  the  historical 
parts  of  the  world  in  his  mind,  and  to  go  from  one  end  of 
the  world  to  the  other  with  a  single  sword."  His  age  was 
not  then  more  than  yours.  I  think  this  is  a  very  good 
thing  for  you  to  consider. 

Sixth.  I  have  heard  that  you  told  Mr.  Mayeda  you  in 
tended  soon  to  return  to  Japan.  What  was  your  reason 
for  this  ?  The  object  for  which  I  sent  you  abroad  is  already 
stated  fully.  I  shall  only  be  delighted  to  hear  of  your 
return  after  you  have  fully  finished  your  education  ;  there 
could  be  no  greater  satisfaction  to  me.  I  fear  that  what 
you  said  was  the  result  of  truant  thoughts  of  home,  You 
have  to  direct  your  whole  attention  to  hasten  the  ac 
complishment  of  your  education.  This  is  the  only  thing 
you  need.  Your  last  letter  to  me  informs  me  how  you 
advance,  and  it  is  my  greatest  expectation  to  see  the  full 
development  of  your  capacities.  You  will  try  to  bear  this 


108  THE   JAPANESE   I2T   AMERICA. 

important  idea  in  your  mind.  I  have  read  your  letter  over 
and  over,  and  I  felt  as  if  you  were  talking  to  me  face  to 
face ;  and  I  hope  this  letter  will  be  the  same  to  you,  and 
that  my  deep-felt  and  sole  desire  for  your  education  will  be 
remembered  forever.  

THE  MEMORABLE  YEAR. 
BY  E.  R.  ENOUYE. 

The  sun  of  1871  is  fast  sinking  below  the  horizon.  Before 
we  lose  sight  of  it  entirely,  let  us  review  the  important 
events  with  which  this  year  is  so  closely  united. 

We  are  not  yet  recovered  from  the  shock  which  we  at 
first  experienced  in  witnessing  the  utter  humiliation  of  one 
of  the  most  haughty  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  or  sur 
prise  at  the  glorious  triumph  of  her  hereditary  foe ;  or  the 
sudden  brightening  up  of  the  sky  where  we  saw,  in  the 
direction  of  England,  nothing  but  the  dark  clouds  of  war; 
or,  still  later,  the  horror  which  seized  us  all  at  the  cry  of 
despair  from  the  west  in  our  own  country.  We  begin  our 
remarks  with  the  closing  scene  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 
Notwithstanding  the  assurances  of  fiery  Gambetta,  France 
has  finally  lost  all  hope  in  the  prosecution  of  a  successful 
struggle.  As  to  Trochu  in  Paris,  he  is  entirely  powerless, 
and  all  that  he  is  trying  to  do  seems  to  be  the  postpone 
ment  of  the  inevitable  surrender.  The  cry  of  despair  rises 
from  all  quarters.  Something  must  be  done  or  all  will  be 
lost.  At  this  juncture  Bourbaki  makes  the  last  effort  for 
France,  but  fails  signally  before  Belfort,  and  his  shattered 
army  saves  itself  from  annihilation  by  taking  refuge  in 
peaceful  Switzerland.  Almost  simultaneously  with  this 
event,  the  army  of  the  ^Torth,  in  spite  of  the  strenuous 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  109 

exertion  of  its  brave  commander,  Faiclerbe,  is  utterly  de 
feated  ;  while  the  army  of  the  Loire,  beaten  in  detail,  has 
no  prospect  of  offering  any  resistance  to  the  foe.  To  com 
plete  the  catastrophe,  Paris  falls  with  a  tremendous  crash. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Germans,  triumphant  even  beyond 
their  expectation,  proceed  to  reconstruct  the  fabric  of  their 
ancient  empire.  It  lasted  one  thousand  years  from  its 
foundation,  and  having  been  overthrown  by  the  genius  of 
the  great  Napoleon,  it  was  thus  eventually  restored  to 
more  than  its  former  greatness  by  the  incapacity  of  his 
nephew.  King  William  was  crowned  the  Emperor  of  Ger 
many  in  the  palace  of  Versailles. 

But  where  is  the  sovereign  whose  dream  it  was  to  march 
to  Berlin,  dictate  peace,  return  with  a  large  portion  of  ter 
ritory  secured  by  triumph  over  a  fallen  foe,  and  as  a  re 
ward  for  this  service  to  France  was  to  ask  her  to  tolerate 
his  son  on  the  throne  which  he  usurped  ?  The  answer  is  a 
sad  but  conclusive  one.  He  is  a  lone  exile  in  a  foreign 
land.  When,  in  October,  1870,  Prince  Gortschakoff  issued 
his  notes  on  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  it  almost  amounted  to 
the  declaration  of  war.  It  recites  the  successive  viola 
tions  of  European  treaties,  among  them  that  of  1857. 
Russia  wished  to  increase  her  defensive  power,  especially 
in  the  Black  Sea,  hence  she  disavowed  her  obligation  to 
the  limited  enjoyment  of  the  empire,  and  invited  the  Sul 
tan  to  enjoy  equal  rights  with  her.  England  .would  have 
gone  to  war,  but,  not  to  speak  of  her  own  decline  in 
power,  her  trusted  ally  was  utterly  prostrated.  As  to  her 
other  ally  in  the  Crimean  war,  the  King  of  Italy,  he  had 
enough  to  do  at  home. 

Nothing  could  be  expected  from  either  terrified  Turkey  or 


110  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

incapable  Austria.  At  this  state  of  affairs,  it  was  agreed 
that  a  conference  between  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
should  decide  all  the  differences.  This  congress,  which 
assembled  in  London,  in  the  early  part  of  this  year,  grati 
fied  every  wish  of  Russia.  She  has  already  turned  this  to 
account  in  the  furthering  of  her  own  interests.  She  has 
built  many  ships  of  war,  and  the  work  is  still  going  on 
with  great  energy. 

Sebastopol,  Odessa,  and  other  principal  ports  of  the 
Black  Sea  are  being  fortified  with  great  care.  We  know 
what  all  this  means,  namely,  the  capture  of  Constantinople 
ultimately,  and  the  absolute  supremacy  of  Russia  in  the 
councils  of  European  nations  afterward.  Among  the 
events  which  have  taken  place  in  England,  the  most  im 
portant  has  been  the  abolition  of  the  purchase-system  in 
the  army.  Taught  by  the  example  of  France,  and  fearing 
a  collision  with  Germany,  she  proceeded  to  put  her  forces 
in  good  condition,  which  was  impossible  as  long  as  that 
absurd  custom  existed.  This  was  not  accomplished  with 
out  opposition.  It  almost  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the  min 
istry  of  Mr.  Gladstone.  Next,  we  turn  to  Italy.  Rome  is 
taken  by  the  Italian  army,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Pope  is  forever  gone.  All  in  good  time  Rome  is  made  the 
national  capital,  and  that  dream  of  illustrious  Cavour,  the 
unification  of  Italy,  is  now  complete. 

Anarchical  Spain  next  claims  our  attention.  In  the  Duke 
of  Aosta  she  found  her  king,  but  scarcely  does  he  find 
himself  on  the  shore  of  Spain  ere  Marshal  Prim,  the  sol 
dier  to  whom,  he  owed  his  throne,  falls  by  the  hands  of 
assassins.  Ministry  after  ministry  is  formed,  all  to  no  pur* 
pose.  Much  may  be  said  of  her  condition,  but  we  will 


Ill 

leave  young  Amadeus  to  struggle  alone  with  his  destiny, 
and  turn  our  attention  again  to  Paris. 

Paris,  fighting  against  whole  France,  presented  us  with 
the  spectacle  of  a  ship  frozen  amid  the  ice  of  the  polar 
sea,  and  its  crew,  without  the  means  of  wintering  there, 
engaged  in  a  desperate  contest  with  nature  itself.  Such  a 
state  of  things  cannot  long  continue.  Although  the  pro 
visional  government  was  obliged  to  temporize  at  the 
beginning  of  this  mad  revolt,  as  soon  as  it  rallied  its 
forces  it  acted  with  firmness,  and  punished  the  insurgents 
to  their  hearts'  content.  The  last  hours  of  the  Commune 
of  Paris  were  disgraced  by  their  wanton  destruction  of 
those  great  works  of  art  of  which  Paris  was  so  justly 
proud.  Well  might  Madame  Roland  exclaim,  "Oh,^Lib- 
erty,  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name !"  By 
the  fall  of  France,  the  republican  government  is  firmly 
established  in  France,  for  the  time  being.  We  dare  not 
speculate  on  her  future.  Who  is  her  president  ?  M.  Thiers, 
the  ex-minister  of  Louis  Philippe  !  This  is  not  an  encourag 
ing  prospect  for  France. 

Besides,  are  there  not  the  Bourbonists,  the  Orleanists, 
and  the  Bonapartists,  madly  engaged  in  their  selfish  in 
trigues  ?  Her  destiny  depends  a  great  deal  on  her  presi 
dent.  It  will  be  a  real  blessing  to  her  if  M.  Thiers  proves 
himself  a  Washington  to  France,  but  we  have  reason  to 
fear  he  will  be  another  Talleyrand,  who  treated  his  enemies 
as  if  they  might  be  his  friends  in  future,  and  vice  versa. 
In  America  the  San  Domingo  question  is  agitating  the 
public  mind.  The  president,  although  he  has  often  declared 
that  he  has  no  policy  opposed  to  the  will  of  the  people, 
seems  determined  on  annexing  the  island  to  the  United 


112  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

States,  but  he  is  not  supported  by  the  people  at  large. 
The  excitement  was  becoming  greater  and  greater,  when 
the  Administration  yielded  the  point,  and  the  subject  was 
dropped,  for  the  time  being;  because  the  West  Indies,  by 
their  situation,  are  unmistakably  destined  at  no  distant  day 
to  form  the  outposts  of  this  grand  republic.  The  San 
Domingo  question  lost  much  of  its  importance  on  account 
of  the  Alabama  claims,  which  sought  the  attention  of  the 
nation.  This  difficulty,  together  with  the  so-called  fishery 
question,  was  the  cause  of  much  feeling  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  It  threatened  a  war  between 
the  two  nations ;  but,  after  protracted  preliminary  negotia 
tions,  in  which  the  recriminations,  evasions,  and  "  assurances 
of  th*e  distinguished  considerations  "  were  curiously  inter 
mixed,  it  was  agreed  that  the  Joint  High  Commission 
should  settle  all  the  differences.  The  result  of  their  labors 
was  the  Treaty  of  Washington,  which  is  justly  considered 
one  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  civilization.  By  its  pro 
visions  the  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  is  shortly  to  assemble 
in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This  august  court  is  composed 
of  the  members  appointed  respectively  by  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Brazil,  Italy,  and  Switzerland.  We 
have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  difficulty  will  be  sat 
isfactorily  settled. 

An  event  which  called  forth  expressions  of  sympathy 
from  every  quarter  is  the  great  fire  at  Chicago,  which 
almost  destroyed  that  empire  city  of  the  West.  We  all 
know  how  the  conflagration  was  caused  by  an  accident, 
how  the  strong  wind  rendered  futile  the  efforts  of  its  gal 
lant  firemen,  how  the  thousands  of  people  were  made  home 
less,  how  the  world  poured  its  beautiful  charity  into  the 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  113 

devastated  city.  A  circumstance  which  is  particularly 
deserving  of  notice  is  that  its  inhabitants,  nothing  daunted 
by  the  magnitude  of  their  calamity,  set  themselves  at  once 
to  the  work  of  reconstruction.  Speaking  of  the  Chicago 
fire,  we  should  not  overlook  that  great  fire  which  raged  in 
the  forests  of  some  of  the  western  States. 

The  completion  of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  is  one  of  the 
greatest  triumphs  of  scientific  engineering,  and  an  event 
which  well-nigh  reconciles  us  to  this  year,  which  has  been 
so  full  of  calamities  to  mankind.  The  honor  of  this  great 
achievement  belongs  unitedly  to  Louis  Napoleon,  Emperor 
of  France,  and  Count  Cavour,  the  Prime  Minister  of  Victor 
Emanuel.  Cavour's  immediate  object  was  to  establish 
perfect  means  of  intercourse  between  two  divisions  of  the 
kingdom  over  which  his  sovereign  then  ruled ;  but  its 
importance  to  Europe,  especially  France,  was  so  manifest, 
that  the  French  government  agreed  to  pay  half  the  expense, 
which  is  about  thirty  million  dollars.  *  It  was  commenced 
in  1857,  and  completed  in  September  of  this  memorable 
year.  Its  length  is  seven  and  one-half  miles.  It  was  well 
France  shared  the  expense,  for,  by  the  Treaty  of  Villa 
Franca,  Napoleon  III.  wrested  from  Sardinia  the  rich  prov 
ince  of  Savoy,  which  is  one  of  the  divisions  previously 
referred  to,  as  a  compensation  for  the  aid  to  her  in  the 
Austrian  war.  At  the  advent,  this  year  was  enveloped 
in  the  thick  clouds  of  war.  One  by  one  they  have  dis 
appeared.  Now,  sinking  beneath  the  western  horizon,  she 
sends  us  her  farewell  light  in  the  forms  of  many  scientific 
improvements  and  higher  civilization  ;  but  alas !  a  cloud 
still  obscures  a  spot  on  the  earth's  surface,  over  which  are 
written  the  words,  "  The  Eastern  Question" 


114  THE   JAPANESE   IX   AMERICA. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON. 

BY  N.  KANDA. 

George  Washington,  who  was  a  great  patriot,  and  the 
first  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Westmore 
land,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  on  the 
22d  of  February,  1732.  His  father  was  a  rich  man, 
but  Washington  received  only  the  usual  education  which 
any  one  could  receive  in  this  country  at  that  time.  He 
might  have  been  sent  to  Europe  to  receive  a  further  educa 
tion  if  he  had  wanted  to.  Washington  knew  the  French 
language,  which  he  learned  after  he  became  a  general,  for 
the  purpose  of  talking  with  the  French  soldiers  who  were 
sent  here  to  unite  with  the  Army  of  Independence.  Wash 
ington  was  a  very  good  surveyor.  When  he  was  but  six 
teen  years  of  age,  he  was  employed  in  surveying  the  great 
wilderness  near  the  Alleghany  mountains,  belonging  to  his 
relation,  Lord  Fairfax.  Before  he  was  twenty  years  old,  he 
was  made  one  of  the  important  officers  in  the  army,  called 
Adjutant-General.  When  he  was  about  twenty-two  years 
old  he  became  an  important  general  in  the  war  of  English 
and  French,  in  America,  of  1754,  which  war  lasted  for  six 
years,  from  1754  until  1760.  When  the  war  closed,  the 
Americans  hoped  that  there  wTould  be  better  times,  as  a 
new  king  had  ascended  the  throne,  whose  name  was  George 
the  Third.  Because,  at  those  times,  the  governors  of  the 
colonies  were  sent  from  England,  and  they  oppressed  them 
very  much  with  strict  laws.  But  instead  of  better  times 
came  more  troublous  times,  as  follows :  During  the  war 
just  ended  the  king  spent  all  the  money  he  had,  and  he 
asked  his  advisers  how  he  might  get  more.  Then  his  advis- 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  115 

ers  said,  "  Tax  the  Americans,  for  they  are  rich  and  will 
not  mind  it."  And  men  were  sent  from  England  to  col 
lect  taxes.  But  the  people  murmured  about  paying  taxes, 
and  disliked  them.  James  Otis,  a  great  patriot  of  Massa 
chusetts,  advised  the  people  not  to  pay  a  penny.  So  the 
king  could  not  get  much  money.  Therefore  the  king 
and  his  advisers  made  another  law  to  take  the  money  from 
the  Americans,  called  "  The  Stamp  Act."  But  this  failed 
also,  by  the  advice  to  the  people  by  a  great  patriot,  named 
Patrick  Henry.  And  again  the  king  and  his  advisers 
tried  another  way  to  get  money,  which  was  to  make  Amer 
icans  pay  taxes  on  any  tea,  paper,  glass,  painters'  colors, 
etc.,  brought  in  ships  from  England.  And,  knowing  that 
the  Americans  would  not  like  to  pay,  they  sent  soldiers  to 
compel  the  people  to  pay.  And  this  made  the  Americans 
very  angry.  The  people  in  many  colonies  drove  their  gover 
nors  away,  and  said  to  the  king  and  his  advisers,  "  We  are 
all  ready  to  light  for  freedom  ;  send  your  soldiers  as  much 
as  you  please."  So  the  Americans  now  began  to  strive 
for  freedom. 

The  first  battle  for  independence  was  fought  in  Lex 
ington,  near  the  city  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
19th  of  April,  1775.  They  appointed  George  Washing 
ton  to  be  Commander-in-Chief,  and  several  other  great  patri 
ots  as  his  assistants.  Washington  first  took  the  command 
of  the  army  under  the  elm-tree,  still  standing,  in  Cam 
bridge,  near  Boston,  on  the  3d  of  July,  1775.  The  army 
was  made  up  of  all  kinds  of  people.  Their  dresses  were 
not  uniform,  nor  were  their  weapons  alike,  but  some  had 
pitchforks,  and  some  poles,  etc.  Washington  soon  changed 
their  dresses  and  weapons,  and  made  them  soldiers. 


116  THE   JAPANESE   IN"   AMETCICA. 

On  the  4th  day  of  July,  1776,  the  "Declaration  of  In 
dependence"  was  agreed  in  the  State  House,  Philadelphia. 
So  every  year  on  that  day,  the  bells  are  rung  in  the  morn 
ing  and  at  night,  and  guns  are  fired.  Boys  fire  crackers 
from  morning  till  night.  After  the  independence  was 
declared,  hard  wars  continued  for  eight  years  in  many  dif 
ferent  places,  from  1775  till  1782. 

George  Washington  was  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
army  all  through  the  war,  and  gained  a  great  many  victo 
ries  over  the  British,  in  many  places.  He  was  a  great  gen 
eral,  and  a  very  brave  soldier.  When  the  Americans 
became  independent  they  thought  they  must  have  some 
body  to  govern  them,  so  they  chose  Washington  to  be 
their  Chief  Ruler  or  President;  and  John  Adams  was 
chosen  Vice-President. 

Washington  was  inaugurated  the  first  President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  30th  of  April,  1789. 

After  faithfully  governing  the  people  for  eight  years,  he 
retired  from  his  office  on  the  4th  of  March,  1797,  and 
went  to  his  home  on  Mount  Yernon,  and  lived  there  qui 
etly  until  the  14th  of  December,  1799,  and  he  died.  His 
tomb  is  in  Mount  Vernon,  near  his  old  house,  which  is  yet 
standing. 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  117 


PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS. 
BY  E.  R  ENOUYE. 

It  may  be  universally  affirmed  that,  in  every  country, 
public  schools  were  established  long  after  the  people  were 
fairly  started  on  their  road  to  civilization.  Prior  to  this 
period,  such  learning  as  was  known  to  the  country  was 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  priests.  At  last,  a  long  series  of 
bloody  wars  has  ceased  ;  what  had  been  mere  clusters  of 
tents  and  rude  huts  are  now  replaced  by  more  substantial 
villages  and  cities ;  men  leave  the  implements  of  war  for 
those  of  agriculture  and  other  useful  industries :  in  fact, 
all  is  peace  throughout  the  country.  Education  of  the 
young  no  longer  consists  in  mere  physical  culture,  and  in 
the  art  of  war;  but  some  attention  begins  to  be  paid  to 
the  cultivation  of  their  mental  faculties.  Now,  for  the 
first  time,  we  shall  find  private  schools  established,  mainly 
under  the  auspices  of  priests,  where  children  of  the  wealthy 
are  educated.  The  time  intervening  between  this  period 
and  the  appearance  of  public  schools,  of  course  varies 
with  different  countries,  but  in  all  cases  are  full  of  most 
important  events  in  the  history  of  the  mind  of  man. 

It  would  be  a  very  interesting  task  to  investigate  these 
stages  of  progress,  but,  as  the  object  of  our  present  essay 
is  merely  to  discuss  the  merits  of  public  and  private  schools, 
an  elaborate  history  of  their  origin  will  not  be  attempted. 
Suffice  it,  then,  to  say  that,  by  degrees,  the  diffusion  of 
intelligence  among  the  people  demands  better  facilities  for 
education  than  that  hitherto  afforded  by  private  schools ; 
hence  the  establishment  of  public  institutions  of  learning. 
The  design  of  private  schools  is  to  secure  to  the  young  a 


118  THE   JAPANESE    IN    AMERICA. 

thorough  learning  in  every  needed  department  of  science, 
when  such  opportunities  would  not  be  secured  by  public 
institutions. 

At  the  present  day,  most  private  schools  are  founded  on 
the  principles  of  home  discipline. 

When  a  child  enters  a  private  school,  he  is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  severed  from  his  own  home,  and  home  authority  is, 
in  this  case,  transferred  to  the  school.  Henceforth,  he  is 
to  be  treated  as  one  of  the  children  of  the  principal. 

As  he  who  can  afford  to  send  his  child  to  a  private 
school  must  be  a  man  of  some  property,  the  child  in  ques 
tion  will  find  himself  in  comparatively  limited,  and  at  the 
same  time  quite  a  select,  company.  By  a  select  company, 
I  do  not  mean  the  individuals  composing  it  will  be  by 
nature  more  morally  disposed  than  the  same  number  else 
where  are  likely  to  be,  but  that  characterized  by  the  ab 
sence  of  common  vulgarity,  which  is  invariably  found  in 
most  public  schools.  Though  the  company  is  thus  small, 
yet  it  is  sufficiently  large  to  enable  one  to  form  some  idea 
of  the  duties  and  trials  of  life  to  come. 

A  member  of  such  a  school  as  I  have  tried  to  describe 
above,  is  peculiarly  subject  to  temptations  of  learning 
more  serious  vices  than  those  he  may  have  to  encounter  in 
a  public  school. 

Thrown  upon  his  own  responsibility,  and  daily  mingling 
with  a  limited  number  of  associates,  he  soon  learns  numer 
ous  little  things,  in  which  the  bad  far  outnumber  the  good. 

And  then,  like  a  capricious  coquette,  he  will  have  his 
likes  and  dislikes,  to  whom  he  usually  gives  such  elegant 
designations  as  "good  fellows"  and  "  nasty  fellows." 
Thus,  he  takes  his  first  lessons  in  unduly  extolling  or  in 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS,  119 

hating  his  fellow-beings.  But,  as  he  himself  is  one  of 
the  "  nasty  fellows,"  he  will  be  compelled  to  drink  the  first 
draught  of  this  world's  bitterness. 

In  this  way,  definitions  of  such  words  as  hate,  meanness, 
jealousy,  and  false  honor,  and  various  others  of  this  class, 
are  indelibly  stamped  on  his  wild  and  inexperienced  ima 
gination.  But  all  this  falls  into  insignificance  when  we 
contemplate  the  effect  on  his  morals  and  after-life  of  those 
innumerable  little  conspiracies  which  too  often  constitute 
one  of  his  chief  amusements. 

It  may  be  contended  that  these  are  nothing  more  than 
mere  practical  jokes,  and  wholly  harmless  in  their  conse 
quence.  But  when  such  a  view  is  advanced,  we  must 
remember  that  the  disrespect  of  the  child  at  the  fireside  has 
but  a  step  to  go  to  disobedience  of  the  civil  and  divine  law. 

Amid  all  these  faults  of  private  schools,  as  institutions 
of  learning,  two  advantages  secured  here  are  at  once  so 
manifestly  great  as  to  cause  the  defects  above  mentioned 
to  be  usually  overlooked  by  their  patrons.  First,  it  is 
only  in  private  schools  that  a  variety  of  study  can  be  pur 
sued  ;  and,  secondly,  instruction  given  is  far  more  thorough 
there  than  that  is  likely  to  be  in  public  schools.  This  cir 
cumstance  is  easily  explained. 

A  limited  number  of  pupils  being  always  under  the  eyes 
of  their  teachers,  who  are  generally  greater  in  number  in 
proportion  to  their  pupils  than  are  afforded  in  public  insti 
tutions,  therefore  their  scholars  receive  better  attention 
than  in  public  schools. 

Besides  this,  as  the  private  schools  stand  only  by  their 
reputation,  everything  is  done  to  obtain  this  desired 
object. 


1  THE   JAPANESE    IN   AMERICA. 

Public  schools  are  designed  for  the  general  education  of 
the  people.  The  system  employed  differs  in  every  coun 
try,  but  their  fundamental  principle  is  the  same,  which, 
briefly  told,  is  as  follows  :  They  are  founded  and  main 
tained  at  the  expense  of  the  people.  The  necessary  amount 
of  money  is  raised  in  the  form  of  taxation,  and  their  ad 
ministrations  are  in  the  hands  of  officers  appointed  by  the 
government  for  that  purpose. 

Such  being  the  case,  every  citizen  has  a  right  to  send 
his  child  to  a  public  school  in  his  district. 

I  have  said  that,  in  a  private  school,  the  company  is 
select ;  but  here  the  table  is  turned.  In  a  public  school 
every  grade  of  society,  intelligence,  and  refinement,  has 
its  representatives,  and  usually  in  such  numbers  as  to  over 
crowd  recitation  rooms. 

Such  being  the  state  of  things,  we  shall  not  be  surprised 
to  find  that  each  pupil  does  not  receive  as  much  attention 
as  might  be  wished.  This,  no  doubt,  is  a  strong  disadvan 
tage  of  public  education,  and  consequently  loudly  decried 
by  the  advocates  of  private  schools. 

Admitting  their  accusation  to  be  well  founded,  there  is 
another  thing  in  public  schools  which  almost  redeems  this 
defect. 

Everything  is  done  so  openly  and  impartially  here  that 
scholars  soon  feel  that  in  order  to  obtain  the  honors  of  the 
school,  they  must  first  distinguish  themselves  in  their 
studies. 

This  circumstance  fosters  laudable  ambition  among  them, 
especially  that  strong  incentive  to  faithful  labor,  emulation. 
Nobody  will  question  that  this  state  of  things  will  have  a 
most  beneficial  effect  upon  their  character. 


121 

Another  charge  brought  against  public  schools  is,  that 
the  course  of  study  is  not  sufficiently  extended  for  the  vari 
ous  requirements  of  its  members. 

Those  who  say  this,  are  thinking  only  of  the  interest  of  a 
small  portion  of  the  community,  and  not  that  of  the  whole, 
sovereign  community. 

The  mass  of  people  want  a  simple  course  of  education, 
which  is  exactly  what  public  schools  purpose  to  give  to 
their  scholars.  There  is  but  one  road  to  the  field  of  knowl 
edge,  and  those  who  think  there  are  several,  will  never  reach 
that  glorious  goal.  In  a  public  school,  students  must  pur 
sue  such  a  course  of  study  as  may  be  prescribed ;  in  a  pri 
vate  school,  studies  are,  to  some  extent,  at  the  option  of 
its  pupils. 

The  pupil  of  a  public  school,  when  told  what  he  has 
to  do,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  concentrates  all  his  ener 
gy  on  the  work  before  him,  and  comes  out  of  the  severe 
ordeal  with  something  substantial,  with  which  he  may 
begin  the  arduous  duties  of  life  with  some  hope  of  suc- 


'o 

cess. 


In  a  private  school,  the  case  is  far  different.  In  the  first 
place,  a  young  gentleman  is  not  sure  what  studies  he  will 
undertake.  When  at  last  the  important  question  is  settled, 
he  is  not  pleased  with  the  stern  realities  of  the  work.  Let  us 
take  a  case:  A  young  gentleman,  besides  the  regular  studies, 
to  which  he  does  not  do  justice,  begins  the  French,  for  in 
stance,  because  it  is  fashionable,  or  because  he  remembers, 
writh  chagrin,  an  occasion  when  he  was  laughed  at,  for 
writing  in  a  friend's  autograph-book  "  votre  amie"  which 
elegant  phrase  was,  to  his  astonishment,  translated,  Your 

female  friend.     By  the  time  he  can  say  "Comment  vous 

6 


122  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

portez  vous  ?"  without  reference,  he  has  had  enough  of  the 
French  language,  and  turns  his  weary  eye  to  the  German, 
or  Latin,  in  which  he  will  fare  no  better. 

If  the  critical  history  of  a  private  school  be  written,  it 
will  be  found  that  it  has  sent  but  by  far  the  greater  por 
tion  of  its  students  to  swell  the  ranks  of  that  class  of  per 
sons  who  know  a  little  of  a  good  many  things,  but  nothing 
in  particular  to  any  extent.  I  think,  however,  that  the 
chief  merit  of  public  schools  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  child 
is  not  sent  away  from  home  at  a  tender  age,  the  time  when 
his  character,  still  all  chaos,  so  to  speak,  is  just  forming 
itself  into  some  shape,  and  with  whose  completion  his 
destiny  is  to  be  fixed. 

How  critical  a  period  this  is  for  him,  no  sensible  man 
will  question. 

It  is  true,  that  as  he  goes  to  school  daily,  he  sees  all  sorts 
of  juvenile  vices,  but  he  does  not  associate  with  their  pos 
sessors  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  influenced  to  a  great 
extent ;  and  even  if  he  is  affected  a  little,  there  is  on  hand 
a  good  remedy  in  the  love  of  his  parents.  The  reason  why 
public  schools  are  not  fully  appreciated,  is  because  there 
are  so  many  in  the  country. 

Whatever  is  abundant  is  very  apt  to  be  slighted.  Thus, 
a  man  once  observed,  after  profound  consideration,  that  the 
rays  of  the  moon  are  more  precious  than  those  of  the  sun, 
because  the  former  we  get  in  the  night,  which  would  other 
wise  be  dark,  while  the  latter  conies  to  us  in  the  daytime, 
when  we  do  not  want  any  light  at  all.  In  order  to  appre 
ciate  fully  the  importance  of  public  schools,  imagine  them 
all  destroyed.  In  the  course  of  time  the  people  would  be 
utterly  degraded,  and  only  a  small  minority  of  the  people 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  123 

have  nn  opportunity  of  education,  and  also  that  of  exercis 
ing  a  most  galling  tyranny  over  the  ignorant  mass  of  peo 
ple. 

As  men  in  this  state  are  actually  dead  to  the  intellectual 
world,  we  cannot  measure  the  loss  to  humanity  of  those 
groat  minds  which,  though  containing  all  the  power  of  shin 
ing  as  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  go  out  of  existence  as 
quietly  and  as  little  developed  as  those  of  the  lower  orders 
of  creation.  To  illustrate  this,  let  us  refer  to  the  life  of 
the  late  Professor  Mahan  of  West  Point.  We  need  not 
here  speak  of  his  long,  steady,  and  glorious  career.  We 
need  not  speak  of  his  melancholy  death,  b-ut  let  us  ask  how 
his  great  mind  was  developed.  His  parents  were  poor,  and, 
in  all  probability,  could  not  have  given  to  their  son  a  good 
education  ;  but  the  brightness  of  the  boy  so  attracted  the 
attention  of  Hon.  Willoughby  Newton,  in  whose  congres 
sional  district  he  was  born,  that  he  became  a  warm  patron 
of  the  boy,  and  sent  him  to  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  thus  snatching  as  it  were  from  the  hands  of  fate,  one 
of  the  greatest  scientific  soldiers  of  modern  times.  The 
relation  which  private  schools  sustain  to  public  schools  is 
very  similar  to  that  between  cavalry  and  infantry  in  the 
army.  Cavalry  can  be  employed  only  on  the  plains.  In 
fantry  can  be  employed  under  every  possible  circumstance. 
It  is  true,  cavalry  does  great  service,  but  the  fact  that  it 
cannot  act  independently,  brings  it  at  once  to  a  secondary 
rank.  The  same  may  be  said  of  private  schools. 

That  an  army  may,  if  necessary,  dispense  with  the  ser 
vice  of  cavalry,  is  evident  when  we  study  the  campaigns 
of  Napoleon  in  Egypt. 

The  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  for  instance,  was  gained  only 


124  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

by  the  bayonets  of  the  French  soldiers,  against  the  array 
which  the  best  cavalry  then  in  the  world  charged  in  vain. 

In  the  same  .manner,  public  schools  can  educate  the  peo 
ple  without  any  help  from  private  schools.  From  what  has 
been  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  private  schools,  with  all 
their  excellencies  as  institutions  of  learning,  are  but  so  many 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  in  the  army  of  education ;  hence  we 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  system  of  the  private 
schools  is  a  strong  auxiliary  force  to  that  of  public  schools, 
but  that  they  ought  never  to  supersede  wholly  the  latter. 


CHRISTMAS. 
BY  K  KANDA. 

Every  nation  in  the  world,  where  the  people  receive 
Christianity,  observes  the  25th  of  December  as  a  holiday, 
because  it  is  the  birthday  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
who  was  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judea,  a  part  of  Palestine 
in  the  western  part  of  Asia,  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterra 
nean  Sea.  The  mother  of  Jesus  was  Mary,  the  wife  of 
Joseph. 

Jesus  Christ  was  sent  from  God.  "  For  God  so  loved  the 
world  that  he  gave  his  only-begotten  Son,  that  whosoever 
believeth  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting 
life."  He  was  on  the  earth  for  thirty-two  years,  preaching 
the  Gospel,  and  doing  a  great  many  miracles;  and  great 
multitudes  of  people  believed  in  him.  He  had  twelve 
apostles,  who  always  followed  him  from  place  to  place,  as 
he  went  preaching  the  Gospel  and  doing  miracles.  There 
were  a  great  many  who  did  not  believe  that  he  was  sent 
from  God,  and  they  tried  to  find  some  fault  in  him,  that 


STUDENTS'  ESSAYS.  125 

they  might  put  him  to  death;  but  they  found  none,  and  at 
last,  on  a  Friday,  the  chief  priests,  scribes,  and  elders  held 
counsel  with  each  other,  and  bound  Jesus,  and  took  him  to 
Pilate,  a  Roman  Governor,  who  was  then  ruling  over  them. 
And  Pilate  sought  to  release  him  many  times,  saying, 
'Why,  what  evil  hath  he  done?"  because  he  found  no 
fault  in  him;  but  they  cried  out,  "  Crucify  him,'7  and  so 
Pilate,  though  unwilling  to  put  Christ  to  death,  but  willing 
to  content  the  people,  delivered  Jesus  Christ  to  be  crucified. 
And  they  dressed  him  with  purple  robes,  and  put  a  crown 
of  thorns  on  his  head,  and  worshipped  him,  and  struck  his 
head  with  a  staff,  and  spit  on  his  face.  And  afterward  they 
took  the  robes,  and  put  his  owTn  dress  on,  and  led  him  to 
be  crucified.  About  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  he  was 
crucified,  and  the  following  superscription  was  written 
over  his  head,  "The  King  of  the  Jews."  And  there  were 
crucified  two  thieves  with  him,  one  on  his  right-hand  side, 
and  the  other  on  the  left.  And  that  night  the  Jews  who 
believed  on  him  came,  and  asked  for  his  body;  and  they 
gave  the  body  to  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  he  wrapped 
him  in  linen,  and  put  him  in  a  sepulchre,  and  laid  a  large 
stone  at  the  mouth  of  it. 

There  was  a  great  earthquake  very  early  on  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  and  the  angel  of  God  descended  from  heaven, 
and  rolled  back  the  stone  which  was  at  the  opening  of  the 
sepulchre.  "  His  countenance  was  like  lightning,  and  his 
raiment  white  as  snow.  And  for  fear  of  him  keepers  did 
shake,  and  became  as  dead  men  !"  And  when  the  women 
came  they  found  the  stone  rolled  away,  but  did  not  find 
Jesus  in  the  tomb,  but  an  angel,  dressed  in  white,  sitting  at 
the  entrance.  And  he  spoke  to  them,  "  Be  not  affrighted 


126  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

Jesus,  whom  they  crucified,  is  risen,  and  go  to  Galilee,  and 
you  will  see  him  there."  So  they  and  Jesus'  apostles  went 
there  and  saw  him.  He  was  on  the  earth  for  forty  days 
after  he  had  risen  from  the  dead,  and  he  appeared  to  his 
apostles  and  disciples  many  times,  and  on  the  fortieth  day 
he  ascended  to  heaven,  being  carried  by  a  cloud,  and  all 
his  apostles  and  disciples  looked  up  to  heaven  steadfastly 
till  he  went  out  of  their  sight. 

Christmas-day,  the  birthday  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  came 
to  this  world  to  save  sinners,  is  celebrated  as  a  holiday.  In 
the  evening,  in  some  houses  is  placed  an  evergreen-tree  lit 
with  a  great  many  candles,  and  on  it  are  hung  many  round 
glass  balls  which  reflect  the  light  from  the  candles,  and 
make  the  tree  look  more  beautiful.  And  on  it  are  hung 
many  presents,  which  are  given  to  each  one  in  the  family. 
The  room  is  shut  until  everything  is  ready,  and  they  open 
the  room  where  the  tree  is  lighted  with  a  great  many 
candles  and  balls,  and  the  presents  are  growing  on  the  tree 
like  fruit.  And  some  one  cuts  the  fruit  off  from  the  tree, 
and  gives  to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 


JAPANESE    POETEY. 


THE  collection  of  oriental  books  which  forms  a  leading 
feature  of  the  Japanese  Legation  in  Washington,  has 
among  its  treasures  a  compilation  of  ancient  Japanese  Po 
etry.  The  work  is  called  Man-yo-Shiu,  is  in  three  volumes, 
each  one  about  three  inches  long,  and  less  than  half  an 
inch  in  thickness,  and  beautifully  printed  on  gossamer 
paper.  There  is  also  embodied  in  these  volumes  a  Poetical 
Anthology  entitled  Shi-ku-Shiu.  Some  editions  of  this 
work  are  in  large  type  and  copiously  illustrated.  The 
poems,  so  called,  were  written  between  the  years  A.D.  905 
and  1201,  nor  are  they,  by  any  means,  the  earliest  poems 
extant.  They  are  numerous,  and  while  some  of  the  more 
ancient  specimens  fill  several  pages,  W7ith  accompanying 
notes,  the  majority  do  not  occupy  more  than  half  a  page, 
and  others  only  a  single  line  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  char 
acters  combined.  They  purport  to  have  been  written  by 
emperors  and  princes,  court  minstrels  or  poets-laureate,  by 
priests  and  common  men  ;  and  they  touch  upon  the  vari 
ous  themes  of  love  and  war,  the  feelings  of  joy  and  sor 
row,  upon  birds,  insects,  flowers,  trees,  and  all  the  won 
ders  of  nature.  Many  authors  composed  all  their  poetry 
in  couplets,  which  were  executed  with  skill,  and  no  subjects 
were  too  formidable  for  them  to  grapple.  Some  of  them 
are  addressed  to  friends,  in  the  form  of  letters,  and  occa 
sionally  different  parts  of  a  poem  are  written  by  different 


128  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

men.  For  example,  if  a  fortress  is  reduced,  the  emperor 
relates  the  cause  of  the  war,  and  the  successful  and 
defeated  generals  give  their  respective  experiences,  and 
thus  complete  the  story.  Owing  to  the  mixed  characters 
in  which  the  poems  are  written — a  kind  of  oriental  black- 
letter — some  of  them  cannot  possibly  be  translated,  and 
those  most  easily  understood  lose  their  peculiar  beauty  in 
the  English  tongue.  The  collection  in  question  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  been  printed  in  various  styles, 
but  the  miniature  copy  now  before  the  writer  was  pub 
lished  in  Miako,  the  cradle  of  Japanese  literature,  in  17 17, 
and  the  binding  consists  of  thin  paper  covered  with  blue 
silk. 

Before  submitting  to  the  public  a  few  literal  translations 
from  the  little  volumes  referred  to  (made  chiefly  by  Mr. 
Samro  Takaki  of  the  Japanese  Legation,  and  formerly  a 
student  in  New  Brunswick),  it  may  gratify  the  reader  to 
look  at  a  synopsis  of  the  Introduction.  These  poems,  as 
the  compiler  informs  us,  are  founded  on  the  human  heart. 
The  thousands  of  words  which  compose  them  convey  a 
similar  number  of  thoughts,  which  are  the  result  of  seeing 
and  hearing.  As  the  birds  chirp  among  the  flowers,  the 
frogs  croak  in  the  still  waters,  and  all  animated  beings 
have  a  voice  to  be  heard,  so  is  it  with  those  who  compose 
songs.  They  echo  the  spirit  of  the  universe,  and  move  to 
pity  the  hearts  of  the  gods  and  demi-gods,  who  are  not 
seen  with  human  eyes,  and  who  have  power  to  prevent 
famine  among  the  people,  cure  diseases,  and  abate  the 
most  terrible  storms.  They  strengthen  the  affections  be 
tween  men  and  women,  soften  the  passions  of  ferocious 
warriors,  and  have  existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  world. 


JAPANESE    POETRY.  129 

It  has  come  down  to  the  present  race  in  tradition,  that  the 
art  of  poetry  originated  in  heaven,  and  is  perpetuated  upon 
earth  by  the  wise.  By  direction  of  one  of  the  early  em 
perors,  the  poems  to  be  thereafter  written  were  limited  to 
thirty-one  syllables,  whereas  before  that  time  the  number 
was  unlimited.  But  few  of  those  more  ancient  poems, 
however,  are  now  in  existence.  As  the  art  of  poetry  pro 
gressed,  it  increased  the  expression  of  human  feelings  for 
nature,  until  there  was  found  a  deep  meaning,  even  in  dew- 
drops,  and  birds,  and  flowers.  Among  all  the  poems  writ 
ten  in  the  olden  times,  and  in  as  many  as  six  different 
styles,  there  were  two  which  were  greater  than  all  the 
rest,  and  equal  in  ability,  and  these  should  always  be 
learned  by  beginners.  Some  of  the  ancient  emperors,  in 
the  ''  beautiful  mornings  of  flowery  Spring,  and  the  moon 
light  nights  of  Autumn,"  were  wont  to  call  the  members 
of  their  courts  together,  to  compose  poems  on  the  works 
of  nature,  and  in  that  manner  they  became  acquainted  with 
what  was  in  the  hearts  of  their  people.  And  it  was  in  this 
manner  also  that  many  celebrated  poems  came  into  exist 
ence,  which  are  still  cherished  and  repeated  in  the  domestic 
circles  of  Japan. 

Accompanying  many  of  the  verses  under  consideration 
are  elaborate  notes,  connecting  them  with  important  histori 
cal  events  and  personages.  It  is  related  of  one  of  the  em 
perors,  for  example,  that  he  always  composed  his  poetry  by 
the  side  of  a  favorite  waterfall ;  and  of  a  certain  prince, 
that  he  had  been  sheltered  in  a  monastery  on  a  stormy 
night,  and  having  written  a  poem  on  the  subject,  presented 
it  to  the  institution,  whereby  it  obtained  a  fortune.  Among 

the  most  ancient  and  distinguished  women  who  wrote  poetry 

6* 


130  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA. 

was  one  of  the  Empresses  of  Japan,  named  Soo-tood-hime, 
but  much  of  it  is  said  to  be  "  like  the  complainings  of  a 
beautiful  girl  in  her  sickness."  Among  the  poetesses  who 
is  thought  never  to  have  been  excelled,  was  Onono-JSjomatck, 
and  she  is  remembered  to  this  day  with  religions  venera 
tion.  She  was  originally  attached  to  one  of  the  Imperial 
Courts  of  Japan,  and  her  style  or  power  of  playing  with 
words,  which  cannot  be  illustrated  in  English,  was  consid 
ered  the  perfection  of  art.  But  on  account  of  the  coldness 
and  indifference  with  which  she  received  the  homage  of  her 
many  admirers,  she  became  reduced  to  beggary,  and  as  a 
lonely  and  friendless  minstrel  she  spent  the  greater  part  of 
her  life.  For  many  years  she  wandered,  barefooted,  from 
village  to  village,  selling  her  treasures  of  thought  and  sen 
timent  to  any  who  would  purchase  them,  and  teaching  the 
little  children  who  gathered  around  her,  how  to  recite  her 
poetry  on  the  beauties  and  sublimities  of  creation.  Very 
many  of  the  poems  in  the  collection  before  us  have  become 
popular  as  songs,  and  as  these  are  more  easily  translated 
than  the  longer  poems,  the  subjoined  specimens  are  exclu 
sively  of  that  character. 

These  productions  are  undoubtedly  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  lyric  than  to  any  other  form  of  composition,  although 
many  of  them  are  merely  poetic  aphorisms  ;  and  yet,  so  far 
as  they  are  pervaded  by  one  leading  idea,  they  might,  bar- 
ring  their  length,  resemble  the  sonnet  more  closely.  To  the 
casual  reader  they  may  occasionally  appear  somewhat  triv 
ial,  but  they  certainly  give  us  many  glimpses  into  the  Japan 
ese  mind ; — but  when  we  consider  their  origin  and  great  an 
tiquity,  they  cannot  but  be  read  with  interest  and  pleasure. 

Some  of  the  longer  poems  in  the  collection  are  founded 


JAPANESE   POETRY.  131 

upon  the  customs,  as  well  as  the  traditions,  of  the  Empire, 
and  we  submit  a  single  specimen,  in  which  the  beautiful 
and  the  sorrowful  are  happily  combined.  Among  the  nu 
merous  holidays  which  the  Japanese  formerly  celebrated 
with  great  care,  there  were  three  of  them  which  they  devot 
ed  to  the  Festival  of  Departed  Spirits.  It  occurred  in  July, 
between  the  13th  and  16th  of  the  month.  On  the  first  day 
a  fire  was  built  in  front  of  every  house  in  the  Empire, 
which  was  a  signal  or  invitation  for  all  the  departed  mem 
bers  of  the  house  to  revisit  their  old  homes.  A  suitable 
place  in  each  house  was  arranged,  where  food  of  various 
kinds  was  kept  constantly  in  view,  for  the  use  of  the  spirits. 
On  the  third  day  another  fire  was  made,  and  the  spirits 
were  supposed  to  take  their  departure  with  the  setting  of 
the  sun.  On  that  night,  as  was  believed,  the  fires  of  hell 
were  opened,  and  kept  open  until  the  dawn ;  and  during 
the  nocturnal  period,  ceremonies  were  performed,  and  efti- 
gies  exhibited  in  honor  of  Satan.  With  these  preliminary 
remarks,  and  avoiding  everything  like  a  display  of  learning 
in  regard  to  Japanese  authors  and  their  productions,  we 
submit  the  following  translations. 

Nature. 

Among  the  things  in  nature  which  will  never  tarry  for  the  pleasure  of 
man,  are  running  rivers,  fading  flowers,  and  passing  time. 

The  Cherry -Trees. 

We  feel  not  the  cold  under  the  cherry-trees,  when  the  blossoms  are  fall 
ing,  and  there  are  snow-showers  which  do  not  come  from  the  skies. 

The  Moon.  -^ 

There  are  many  ways  of  climbing  a  mountain,  but  all  who  reach  the 
summit  are  sure  to  look  upon  the  same  moon. 

Love. 

My  love  is  like  a  rock  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  which  never  gets  dry 
and  the  secret  which  I  cherish  is  unknown  to  all  the  world. 


132  THE  JAPANESE   I]ST   AMERICA. 

Illusions  of  the  Snow. 

When  the  snow  lies  so  deep  upon  the  mountains  that  we  cannot  see  the 
winding  roads,  then  it  is  that  the  villages  are  brought  nearer  to  their  sum 
mits,  for  the  valleys  are  all  filled  up,  and  the  pathway,  as  we  look  upon  it, 

is  distinct  and  clear. 

Parting  from  Friends. 

When  compelled  to  say  farewell  to  a  friend,  the  parting  is  like  a  rock 
which  divides  a  mountain-stream,  the  waters  of  which  are  sure  to  meet 

again. 

The  Plum-Tree. 

Send  me  your  fragrance  upon  the  eastern  winds,  0  flowers  of  the  plum- 
tree,  and  do  not  forget  the  Spring,  because  of  the  absence  of  the  sun  !  But 
the  sweetness  I  enjoy  only  makes  me  anxious  for  more,  and  so  I  am 
tempted  to  go  forth  and  break  down  your  branches,  that  I  may  press  you 

in  my  hands. 

The  New  Year. 

The  year  is  new,  and  the  singing-voice  of  the  night-bird  is  unchanged, 
but  the  plum-tree  may  blossom  in  the  snow  before  the  coming  of  Spring. 

Story  of  the  Smoke. 

I  climbed  the  mountain  (said  an  emperor,  when  his  countrymen  were 
suffering  from  poverty),  and,  looking  down,  I  saw  the  smoke  rising  from 
unnumbered  dwellings,  and  so  I  was  glad  to  believe  that  my  people  were  in 
comfort,  for  I  love  them  as  a  mother  does  her  children. 

The  Dewdrop. 

Having  the  pure  heart  of  the  lotus,  why  does  the  dewdrop,  reposing  on 
the  leaves,  attempt  to  deceive  us  by  pretending  to  be  a  gem  ? 

The  Fat  Widow. 

I  am  so  large,  that  you  could  not  encircle  me  in  your  arms,  yet  you 
must  remember  that  a  willow-tree  is  never  anything  but  a  willow-tree ; 
and,  whether  sitting  or  lying  down,  I  find  that  my  musquito-netting  is 

larger  than  I  need. 

The  Rejected  Lover. 

I  wish  to  tell  you  (says  the  lover),  that  even  the  smoke  on  the  sea-coast 
where  the  salt-makers  are  at  work,  is  carried  off  against  its  will,  and  thus 
may  it  be  with  you;  and  (replies  the  maiden),  I  might  have  obeyed  your 
will,  but  it  would  have  been  at  the  hazard  of  my  good  name. 


JAPANESE   POETRY.  133 

The  Duties  of  Life. 

As  I  hope,  in  the  future,  to  be  permitted  to  study  and  wander  among 
the  stars,  I  must  not  forget,  during  my  present  life,  to  respect  the  god.1' 
treat  my  fellow-men  with  justice,  and  keep  my  heart  pure. 

The  Deer. 

As  I  walked  (said  an  emperor)  in  a  pensive  mood,  along  the  woodland- 
paths,  I  heard  a  doe  moaning  for  her  lost  mate,  which  had  been  killed  by 
a  hunter,  and  so  I  resolved  to  issue  a  decree  that  nevermore  should  the 
deer  be  used  by  my  people  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  Faithful  Lover. 

If  my  beloved  doubt  me,  and  would  know  the  extent  of  my  affection, 
she  must  go  and  count  the  waves  along  the  rocky  coast  of  Tago-no-woora. 

Future  Life. 

As  the  fisherman,  with  rudder  lost,  floats  helpless  on  the  waves  of  Yura, 
so  uncertain  will  be  my  future  life. 

The  Neglected  Wife. 

You  chide  me  because  I  went  to  sleep,  but  I  waited,  wakeful  and  deso 
late,  for  your  return,  until  the  morning  light  came  up  above  the  eastern 

sea. 

The  Thinking  Lover. 

To  think,  when  we  are  entirely  alone,  is  sometimes  painful ;  yet,  with 
out  doing  this,  how  can  the  mind  of  my  beloved  be  brought  to  enjoy  my 
thoughts  of  happiness  ? 

Treacherous  Waves. 

When  the  moon  is  shining,  the  receding  waves  of  ocean  collect  its  light, 
and  picture  it  in  its  fullness  upon  their  bosoms,  but  soon  they  dash  it  upon 
the  rocky  shore,  shattering  it  into  unnumbered  fragments. 

Love  for  the  Unknown. 

I  do  not  know  when  my  heart  first  began  to  love,  but  I  do  know  that  it 
is  now  yearning  towards  one,  of  whom  I  have  heard,  but  have  never  seen. 

Autumnal  Winds. 

Mournful,  to  my  heart,  are  the  sounds  of  Autumn,  as  I  hear  them  at  the 
twilight  hour,  passing  over  the  thatched  roof  of  my  house,  and  ^he  rice- 
fields  growing  near 


134  THE   JAPANESE   IK  AMERICA. 

Wayward  Lovers. 

I  am  now  in  the  autumn  of  life,  which  I  had  no  desire  soon  to  see,  and 
the  hearts  of  the  men  who  once  talked  pleasantly  to  me,  have  wandered 
after  many  things  besides  love. 

Clean  Houses 

When  the  houses  of  a  people  are  kept  clean,  you  may  always  be  certain 
that  their  government  is  respected  and  will  endure. 

Unlimited  Love. 

Although  I  have  not  told  it,  my  unlimited  love  is  well-known  to  one  who 
is  above  the  skies. 

The  Water  on  the  Grave. 

I  pray,  0  water,  that  I  have  placed  upon  the  grave  of  my  aged  mother, 
you  may  never  freeze  under  the  influence  of  the  winter's  cold  ! 

The  Doubting  Wife. 

I  will  not  blame  you,  should  your  absence  be  long-continued,  but  you 
must  not  gather  the  unknown  flowers  that  you  may  see  upon  the  winding 

roads. 

The  Returned  Letter. 

By  sending  back  my  letter  you  have  filled  my  eyes  with  tears,  and  I 
now  see  that  your  love  is  like  a  broken  foot-bridge  across  a  mountain- 
stream. 

A  Question. 

Why?  0  why  ?  is  not  the  one  I  love  as  faithful  in  keeping  her  promise 
as  is  the  beautiful  moon  in  passing  across  the  heavens  ? 

Perseverance. 

Although  the  walk  of  a  cow  is  slow,  she  can,  by  perseverance,  reach 
the  distance  of  a  thousand  miles. 

Sadness. 

When  I  am  sad  my  feelings  are  like  the  closing  year,  and  looking  at 
the  autumnal  moon  only  increases  my  sorrow. 

Home. 
I  call  that  place  my  home  where  I  happen  to  be  in  all  the  world. 

The  Lover's  Unkind  Message. 
I  know  that  you  did  not  send  me  that  branch  of  the  maple-tree  as  a 


JAPANESE    POETRY.  135 

token  of  remembrance,  but  to  show  that,  like  its  leaves  at  the  close  of 
autumn,  you  are  tired  of  the  life  of  love. 

The  Returned  Wanderer. 

Long  a  wanderer  from  my  early  home,  I  returned  only  to  find  that  my 
old  friends  did  not  remember  me  ;  but  I  remembered,  with  rare  pleasure, 
the  fragrance  of  the  Spring-flowers. 

Unfading  Love. 

I  promised  that  my  love  would  not  fail  until  the  waves  of  the  sea  had 
swallowed  up  the  mountain  of  Suye,  and  is  it  not  true  that  the  clouds  are 
still  playing  around  its  lofty  summit  ? 

A  Robber  going  into  Banishment. 

I  ask  you,  0  fishermen,  who  toil  upon  the  sea,  to  tell  the  people  of  my 
native  village  that  you  have  seen  me  in  a  frail  vessel  sailing  in  banish 
ment  to  the  island  of  Yassoshima ! 

The  Dancing- Girl. 

As  I  look  upon  the  dancing-girl,  I  am  reminded  of  the  goddess  Otone, 
as  she  appears  in  the  sky  when  the  clouds  are  fleeing  before  the  stormy 
wind. 

The  Snow-Shower. 

To  please  the  one  I  love,  I  went  into  the  mountains  to  gather  the 
wakana  plant  for  her  enjoyment,  and  I  was  caught  in  a  shower  of  Spring 
snow. 

A  Sleepless  Night. 

During  the  long  night  have  I  heard  the  chirping  of  the  grasshopper, 
and  while  the  hoar-frost  was  covering  all  the  ground  I  have  in  vain  tried 
to  obtain  repose. 

Running  from  Troubles. 

I  did  not  wish  to  hear  about  the  troubles  of  life,  and  so  I  fled  far  away 
to  the  distant  hills,  but  even  there  I  heard  the  painful  cry  of  the  wounded 

deer. 

The  Cuckoo. 

I  heard  at  night  the  cry  of  the  cuckoo  bird,  and  when  I  went  forth  to 
see  it,  I  only  saw  the  morning-moon. 

The  foregoing  poems,  with  few    exceptions,    are    taken 


136  THE   JAPANESE   IN   AMERICA  * 

from  the  collection  to  which  we  have  alluded.  By  way  of 
showing  to  what  extent  the  art  of  poetry  has  been  patron 
ized  in  Japan,  we  submit  the  following  list  of  the  principal 
books  which  have  been  published  in  the  native  language, 
viz. : 

ChoJc-sen-shiu,  a  Collection  of  Selections  made  at  the  command  of  the 
Emperor. 

Go-sen-shiu,  Collection  of  after  Selections. 

Jiu-i-shiu,  Collection  of  Additional  Poems. 

Kin-yo-shiu,  a  Collection  of  Golden  Leaves. 

Ko-kin-shiu,  Collection  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Poems,  and 

Shi-ka-shiu,  a  poetical  Anthology. 


/VLoRi, 


PAET    III. 


LIFE 

AND 

RESOURCES  IN  AMERICA. 


PRELIMINARY  NOTE. 

THE  knowledge  furnished  by  all  the  better  qualified 
minds  of  the  world  is  a  powerful  element,  rendering 
great  service  in  the  cause  of  humanity.  It  is  often  the 
case  that  enmity  and  bloodshed  are  the  consequence  of 
storing  up  prejudices,  resulting  from  the  want  of  mutual 
knowledge  of  the  parties  engaged.  The  object  of  this 
publication  is  not  only  to  aid  in  removing  those  preju 
dices,  but  also  to  invite  all  the  lovers  of  their  race,  in 
Japan,  to  join  in  the  noble  march  of  progress  and  human 
happiness. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  dates  are  mentioned  in 
this  volume,  it  has  been  found  necessary,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  to  adopt  the  western  calendar  altogether,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  this  course  will  not  lead  to  any  embarrass 
ment  in  the  mind  of  the  reader. 

AEIXORI  MORI. 

WASHINGTON  CITY,  U.  S.,  September,  1871. 

Or,  according  to  the  Japanese  Calendar,  the 

Seventh  month  of  the  Fourth  year  of  Meidi. 


IKTRODUCTICXlSr. 


BY  the  term  America,  which  appears  on  the  title-page 
of  this  book,  we  mean  the  United  States  of  America.  As 
we  are  writing  for  the  information  of  a  class  of  readers  who 
have  never  visited  this  country,  we  propose  to  speak  in  as 
simple  and  concise  a  manner  as  possible.  Whatever  state 
ments  of  fact  we  may  make,  shall  be  founded  upon  the 
public  and  other  authentic  records ;  and  in  submitting  any 
general  observations,  we  shall  endeavor  to  steer  a  middle 
course,  and  give  only  such  opinions  as  are  held  in  common 
by  the  people  of  the  country.  Before  proceeding  to  the 
main  object  of  this  volume,  however,  we  think  it  necessary 
to  take  a  brief  survey  of  the  area  and  population  of  the 
United  States,  as  follows  :  The  total  area  of  the  Republic, 
which  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and,  excepting  Alaska,  lies  wholly  in  the  temperate 
zone,  is  about  3,830,000  square  miles — an  extent  of  surface 
larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe ;  it  has  a  coast-line,  in 
cluding  shores  of  bays,  sounds,  and  lakes,  of  30,000  miles, 
of  which  2,800  are  on  the  Atlantic,  1,800  on  the  Pacific, 
and  2,000  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  it  is  traversed  from 
north  to  south  by  two  great  ranges  of  mountains,  called 
the  Alleghany  and  Rocky  Mountains;  its  rivers  are  numer 
ous,  and  among  the  largest  in  the  world ;  its  lakes  contain 
more  than  one-half  of  the  fresh  water  on  the  globe ;  and  its 


140  LIFE   AND    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

population,  according  to  the  census  of  1870,  is  not  far  from 
39,000,000,  which  is  a  considerable  advance  upon  the 
population  hitherto  claimed  for  the  Empire  of  Japan.  In 
the  last  70  years,  the  increase  has  been  about  33,000,000. 
Of  these  inhabitants,  it  has  been  estimated  that  more  than 
two-fifths  of  them  are  immigrants,  or  the  descendants  of 
immigrants,  from  foreign  countries.  Great  Britain  and  Ire 
land  have  contributed  most  largely  to  this  immigration, 
and  the  other  countries  which  have  helped  to  swell  the. 
population  are  as  follows,  and  we  mention  them  in  the 
order  of  their  contribution,  viz.:  Germany,  France,  Prussia, 
China,  West  Indies,  Switzerland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Hol 
land,  Mexico,  Spain,  Italy,  Belgium,  South  America,  Den 
mark,  Azores,  Portugal,  Sardinia,  Poland,  and  Russia,  whose 
contribution  was  less  than  2,000,  Of  this  great  mass  of 
immigrants,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  a  very  large 
proportion  have  changed  their  circumstances  for  the  bet 
ter.  With  regard  to  the  black  race,  who  prior  to  the 
year  1860  were  in  a  state  of  bondage,  but  are  now  free, 
they  number  nearly  4,900,000 ;  the  half-civilized  Indian 
tribes,  about  26,000,  and  the  wild  Indians  have  been 
estimated  at  300,000.  In  1870  there  were  of  Chinese 
63,254,  with  whom  were  included  53  Japanese,  but  since 
then  the  latter  have  reached  about  250  in  number.*  The 
public  lands  of  the  United  States  are  so  abundant,  that 
every  man  who  settles  in  the  country  can  afford,  with 
careful  management,  to  have  a  small  farm  for  his  exclusive 
benefit,  as  the  price  of  land  is  generally  so  reasonable  that 


*It  must  not  be  understood  that  all  these  foreigners  have  been 
naturalized. 


INTRODUCTION.  141 

it  scarcely  exceeds,  and  seldom  equals,  the  rent  payable  in 
England.  There  is  no  description  of  produce,  European 
or  tropical,  which  may  not  be  raised  in  the  United  States ; 
and  aside  from  its  many  other  advantages,  there  is  no 
other  country  which  offers  so  many  inducements  to  people 
in  search  of  permanent  and  comfortable  homes ;  and  it  is 
the  present  condition  of  the  people  who  enjoy  this  inherit 
ance,  with  their  manners  and  customs,  that  we  propose  to 
describe  in  the  following  pages  of  this  volume. 

But,  before  concluding  this  introduction,  it  is  important 
that  two  subjects  should  be  mentioned  for  the  special  con 
sideration  of  the  Japanese  people.  While  we  entertain  an 
exalted  opinion  of  what  is  called  a  Republican  form  of 
government,  we  confess  that  it  is  not  without  its  disadvan 
tages  and  dangers.  For  any  foreign  nation  fully  to  under 
stand  them,  must  require  time  and  much  careful  study. 
The  Japanese  people  have  been  somewhat  fascinated  by 
what  they  have  seen  of  the  American  government  and 
institutions,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they 
should  well  consider  the  subject  in  all  its  bearings,  before 
adopting  any  of  its  features  into  their  own  form  of  gov 
ernment.  The  evils  resulting  from  the  misuse  of  freedom 

O 

in  America,  are  among  the  most  dim  cult  to  correct  or  re 
form,  and  ought  to  be  carefully  avoided.  Another  fact 
that  should  not  be  forgotten  has  reference  to  the  educa 
tional  qualifications  necessary  to  secure  success  in  a  Repub 
lican  form  of  government.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
the  best  thinkers  in  America  deplore  the  fact  that  the 
machinations  of  the  politicians  have  resulted  in  placing 
the  United  States  in  an  unfortunate  condition  in  this  re 
spect.  It  has  been  so  profitable  with  designing  and  selfish 


142  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

men  to  increase  the  number  of  voters,  that  they  have  se 
cured  the  passage  of  laws  which  allow  all  men  to  vote, 
in  view  of  the  single  idea  of  personal  freedom.  This  is 
undoubtedly  all  wrong,  and  the  evil  effects  of  this  state  of 
things  are  being  manifested  every  day.  A  prosperous, 
happy,  and  permanent  Republican  government  can  only  be 
secured,  when  the  people  who  live  under  it  are  virtuous 
and  well  educated. 


OFFICIAL  AND  POLITICAL  LIFE. 


As  preliminary  to  this  chapter,  it  would  seem  to  be 
necessary  that  we  should  give  an  outline  of  the  machinery 
of  the  American  Government.  It  is  twofold  in  its  charac 
ter  :  first,  Federal,  because  it  is  made  up  of  States,  and 
second,  National,  because  it  acts  directly  from  the  people. 
According  to  the  Constitution,  it  is  divided  into  three 
branches,  viz.,  Executive,  Legislative,  and  Judicial.  The 
head  of  the  Executive  branch,  or  governor  of  the  nation, 
is  called  the  President,  who  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  the 
people  for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  is  sometimes  re- 
elected  for  an  additional  term  of  four  years.  He  is  also 
the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  United  States  Navy  and 
Army.  The  average  cost  of  each  election,  in  money,  has 
been  estimated  at  two  millions  of  dollars,  and  these  expen 
ses  are  incurred  in  part  by  the  Government  and  people. 
His  office  is  styled  the  Executive  Mansion,  and  is  identical 
with  his  official  residence,  the  White  House.  He  is  obliged  to 
be  a  native  and  citizen  of  the  country,  and  thirty-five  years 
of  age ;  and  his  annual  compensation  is  twenty-five  thou 
sand  dollars.  The  second  officer  of  the  Government  is 
called  the  Vice-President,  whose  business  is  to  preside  over 
the  Senate.  He  is  elected  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
President,  and  his  salary  is  eight  thousand  dollars  per 
annum.  The  Executive  departments  of  the  Government 


144  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

are  seven  in  number,  viz.,  the  departments  of  State  or 
Foreign  Affairs,  Treasury,  Interior,  Post-Office,  'War,  Navy, 
and  of  Justice.  The  heads  of  these  are  called  Secretaries, 
and  they  form  the  Cabinet  of  the  President.  They  each 
receive  a  salary  of  eight  thousand  dollars,  and  their  juris 
diction,  under  the  President,  extends  to  all  the  subordi 
nate  officers  of  the  Government,  whether  located  in  Wash 
ington  or  in  the  several  States  of  the  Union.  The  Judi 
ciary  of  the  country  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  District 
Courts,  and  the  Court  of  Claims  ;  the  salaries  of  the  Judges 

7  n 

ranging  from  sixty-five  hundred  down  to  thirty-five  hun 
dred  dollars  per  annum.  The  Legislative  branch  of  the 
Government  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa 
tives, — the  Senators,  numbering  seventy-four,  elected  for 
six  years,  and  the  Representatives,  two  hundred  and  for 
ty-three,  elected  for  two  years, — and  their  compensation  is 
five  thousand  dollars  per  annum.  The  number  of  States 
which  form  the  Union  is  thirty-seven,  with  ten  Territories 
or  incipient  States,  and  their  form  of  government  is  pre 
cisely  similar  to  that  of  the  nation  at  large  ;  the  leading 
officers  of  eacli  State  or  Territory  bearing  the  titles  of 
Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor.  To  the  above  may 
be  added  the  municipal  form  of  government  for  cities  and 
towns,  where  the  local  authority  is  allied  to  that  generally 
recognized  in  Europe,  where  the  chief  officers  consist  of 
Mayors  and  Aldermen  and  their  subordinates,  although 
bearing  different  names  in  different  countries.  With  these 
particulars  before  him,  the  reader  will  be  able  to  compre 
hend  the  following  observations.  Although  the  real  and 
official  residence  of  the  President  is  in  Washington,  the 
fashionable  season,  so  called,  begins  and  ends  with  the  sit- 


OFFICIAL   AND    POLITICAL    LIFE.  145 

tings  of  Congress,  beginning  in  December  and  lasting  from 
three  to  six  months.  The  position  occupied  by  officials, 
under  the  Constitution,  gives  them  necessarily  a  certain 
rank,  according  to  the  importance  and  nature  of  the  office, 
the  length  of  time,  and  the  age,  required  by  law,  of  the 
incumbent.  The  house  in  which  the  President  resides  is 
tiie  property  of  the  Government ;  and,  to  a  great  extent, 
his  household  expenses  are  paid  by  public  appropriations. 
The  title  by  which  he  is  addressed  in  conversation  is  that 
of  Mr.  President,  and  every  citizen  of  the  Republic,  no 
matter  how  humble  his  position,  has  a  right  to  visit  the 
Executive  in  person.  During  the  winter  he  holds  public 
receptions  as  often  as  once  a  week,  and  on  the  Fourth  of 
July,  which  is  a  National  Holiday,  and  the  First  of  Jan 
uary,  he  receives,  as  a  special  mark  of  respect,  the  Diplo 
matic  Corps  and  the  officers  of  the  Army  and  the  Navy  in 
full  uniform,  himself  always  appearing  without  any  uniform. 
He  accepts  no  invitations  to  dinners,  and  makes  no  calls  or 
visits  of  ceremony  ;  but  is  at  liberty  to  visit  without  cere 
mony  at  his  pleasure.  State-dinners  are  given  by  him 
quite  frequently,  and  persons  invited  commit  a  breach  of 
etiquette  when  they  decline  invitations.  The  rules  of 
social  intercourse  which  govern  the  Cabinet  Ministers  are 
similar  to  those  recognized  by  the  President.  As  their 
tenure  of  office  is  limited,  they  have,  in  spite  of  themselves, 
a  very  busy  time  during  their  whole  term  of  service : 
spending  their  days  in  dealing  out  patronage,  and  their 
nights  in  giving  or  attending  parties.  Their  families  take 
the  lead  in  fashion,  and  all  American  citizens  have  an  un 
disputed  right  to  attend  their  receptions,  and,  after  that 
public  manner,  to  be  fashionable;  and  as  exclusiveness  in 


146  LIFE  AiO)  KESOURCES  ix  AMERICA. 


the  President  or  his  Ministers  would  be  considered  undem 
ocratic,  and  therefore  would  not  be  tolerated,  there  is  no 
end  to  the  so-called  enjoyments  of  life.  If  a  Minister  is 
rich  and  liberal,  he  becomes,  for  the  time  being,  the  big 
gest  man  of  the  hour,  in  spite  of  his  politics  ;  if  poor,  and 
dependent  only  upon  his*  salary,  the  fact  of  his  having  to 
occupy  a  large  house,  and  to  entertain  the  people,  invaria 
bly  sends  him  into  retirement  a  poorer  man  than  he  was 
before.  With  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  these 
matters  are  somewhat  different.  They  are  the  only  digni 
taries  who  hold  office  for  life,  and  they  can  aiford  to  do  as 
they  please,  and  generally  please  to  lead  the  quiet  lives  of 
cultivated  gentlemen.  They  go  into  society  when  the 
spirit  moves  them,  are  not  disinclined  to  partake  of  good 
dinners  with  their  friends,  a  Foreign  Envoy,  or  a  Cabinet 
Minister  :  and  perhaps  the  greatest  of  their  blessings  is,  that 
they  are  not  compelled  to  curry  favor  with  the  multitude. 

The  next  layer  of  Washington  society  to  which  we  would 
allude,  is  made  up  of  the  Heads  of  Bureaus  and  the  Officers 
of  the  Army  and  Navy,  their  pay  ranging  from  ten  to  two 
thousand  dollars  per  annum.  They  are  the  men  who  more 
immediately  manage  the  machinery  of  the  Government, 
and  upon  whom,  to  a  great  extent,  depends  the  success  of 
all  the  public  measures  enacted  by  Congress.  Though 
generally  well  paid,  many  of  them  cannot  afford  to  display 
much  style,  although  they  live  comfortably,  and  generally 
in  their  own  houses,  although  many  officials  reside  in  board- 
ino--houses  or  hotels.  The  civil  officers  are  but  seldom 

O 

appointed  on  their  merits,  but  usually  through  political 
influence  ;  and  the  party  which  happens  to  be  in  power 
commonly  claims  all  the  patronage,  and  the  most  worthy 


OFFICIAL  A:NTD  POLITICAL  LIFE.  147 

and  competent  men  arc  often  dismissed  from  office  without 
a  moment's  warning.  With  the  Military  and  Naval  officers 
the  case  is  somewhat  different,  for  though  they  may  get 
into  office  through  political  influence,  they  are  usually  ap 
pointed  for  life,  and  are  not  removed  without  cause.  After 
the  above  come  the  Clerks  or  employes  of  the  Govern 
ment,  which  number  several  thousand  in  Washington 
alone.  They  are,  in  reality,  the  hardest  working  popula 
tion  of  the  Metropolis.  Among  them  may  be  found  men 
from  every  State  in  the  Union,  and  from  many  foreign 
countries  ;  men  of  no  particular  mark,  who  have  lost  for 
tunes  ;  ripe  scholars,  who  have  been  rudely  buffeted  by 
the  world  ;  men  of  capacity,  who  can  teach  their  superiors 
in  office ;  rare  penmen  and  common-place  accountants ; 
and  a  sisterhood,  composed  chiefly  of  respectable  widows 
and  orphans  who  have  fled  to  the  Government  for  support. 
The  custom  of  employing  women  as  clerks  originated  out 
of  the  disasters  which  followed  the  late  war,  and  the 
number  now  employed  by  the  Government  has  already 
reached  several  thousand,  and  they  have  been  found 
to  be  quite  as  useful  as  men-clerks.  Their  compensa 
tion  ranges  from  nine  hundred  to  twenty-five  hundred  dol 
lars  per  annum,  and  while  it  is  true  that  many  receive  more 
than  they  earn,  because  of  their  idle  or  inattentive  habits, 
others  find  it  difficult  to  secure  a  comfortable  support. 
Occasionally  a  man  may  be  found  who  has  grown  gray  in 
the  public  service,  and  is  an  oracle;  but  the  great  majority 
are,  in  reality,  a  floating  population.  The  comparative 
ease  with  which  these  clerks  earn  their  money  tends  to 
make  them  improvident;  many  instances  might  be  men 
tioned,  however,  where  clerks  have  left  the  government 


148  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

service,  and  become  as  distinguished  as  merchants,  or  in 
some  of  the  professions.  For  a  totally  different  phase  of 
Washington  life,  and  the  most  influential  for  evil  or  for 

O  " 

good,  we  must  turn  to  the  brotherhood  of  Congressmen. 
Coming  as  they  do  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  rep 
resenting  every  variety  of  population,  it  is  quite  as  impos 
sible  to  speak  of  them  collectively  as  of  their  individual 
characteristics.  Among  them  are  to  be  found  honest  and 
able  statesmen,  but  .that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  mere 
time-serving  politicians  is  a  fact  that  cannot  be  questioned. 
It  is  frequently  the  case  that  after  a  Congressman  has 
ended  his  career  as  a  legislator,  he  turns  oflice-seeker,  and 
many  of  them,  without  a  knowledge  of  any  language  but 
their  own,  are  sent  abroad  as  diplomatic  Ministers.  Of 
these  Congressmen,  there  have  been  not  less  than  five 
thousand  of  them  elected  since  the  foundation  of  the  Gov 
ernment  ;  and  the  several  political  parties  to  which  they 
have  belonged  may  be  summed  up  as  Federalists,  Demo 
crats,  Whigs,  Locofocos,  Freesoilers,  Abolitionists,  Fire- 
eaters,  Republicans,  Copperheads,  Native  Americans,  Seces 
sionists,  and  Radicals,  forming  in  the  aggregate  a  con 
glomeration  of  political  ideas  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
energetic  and  free  spirit  of  the  American  people.  Prior  to 
the  late  civil  war,  colored  men  were  not  admitted  to  seats 
in  Congress,  but  at  the  present  time  a  few  of  them  hold 
positions  in  both  Houses  of  Congress, — there  being  now  no 
distinction  recognized  on  account  of  color,  so  far  as  political 
rights  are  concerned.  With  regard  to  the  permanent  pop 
ulation  of  Washington,  little  can  be  said  of  special  interest. 
Occupying,  as  this  city  does,  a  position  on  the  River  Poto 
mac,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  about  midway  between 


OFFICIAL   AND    POLITICAL   LIFE.  149 

the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  it  was 
calculated  to  become  a  place  of  commercial  importance' 
But  this  idea  was  not  realized,  and  it  became  a  metropoli 
tan  city,  chiefly  dependent  for  its  support  upon  the  General 
Government.  The  local  trade  is  measured  by  the  wants 
of  the  population,  and  there  is  nothing  exported  excepting 
a  limited  amount  of  flour,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of 
bituminous  coal.  The  only  particular,  perhaps,  in  which 
the  inhabitants  differ  from  those  of  other  American  cities, 
is  in  their  free  and  easy  manners,  growing  out  of  their 
intercourse  and  familiarity  with  people  from  all  quarters 
of  the  globe,  drawn  hither  by  business  or  pleasure.  With 
them,  the  dignitaries  of  the  land,  as  well  as  ambassadors 
from  abroad,  are  appreciated  at  their  real  value ;  and  a 
man  who  towers  as  a  giant  in  the  rural  districts,  is  very 
sure  to  be  measured  accurately  in  the  metropolis.  But  the 
most  peculiar  feature  of  Washington  society  at  the  pres 
ent  time  (1871),  is  the  position  to  which  the  colored  or 
negro  population  has  attained.  Before  the  late  civil  war, 
these  unhappy  people  were  in  a  state  of  bondage,  and  only 
enough  of  them  were  congregated  in  the  metropolis  to 
supply  the  demand  for  household  servants.  While  the  war 
was  progressing,  which  resulted  in  their  emancipation,  large 
numbers  fled  to  this  city,  as  to  a  place  of  refuge,  and  here  a 
large  proportion  of  them  have  continued  to  remain  to  the 
present  time.  They  have  been  admitted  to  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  citizenship ;  but,  while  the  more  intelligent  have 
profited  by  their  advantages,  large  numbers  of  them  are  con 
tent  to  idle  away  their  time,  or  depend  upon  the  authorities 
for  support,  and  they  constitute  about  one^-third  of  the 
present  population.  They  have  not  as  yet  been  sufficiently 


150  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES    IN   AMERICA. 

educated  to  be  received  in  society  on  the  same  footing  with 
the  white  race,  and  the  repugnance  to  receiving  them  at  the 
same  table,  or  to  intermarrying  with  them,  is  as  strong  as  in 
other  times,  quite  universal,  and  will  probably  so  continue. 
In  the  further  prosecution  of  our  plan,  we  must  direct 
attention  to  that  large  mass  of  the  community  engaged  in 
carrying  on  the  business  of  the  nation  in  the  diverse  regions 
of  the  United  States.  We  begin  with  the  Postmasters,  one 
of  whom  is  located  in  every  city,  town,  and  village  through 
out  the  land,  and  the  aggregate  number  of  whom  is  about 
twenty-six  thousand,  exclusive  of  their  numerous  assistants. 
Their  duties  are,  to  receive  and  deliver  all  letters  sent  to 
their  several  offices,  and  to  look  after  the  prompt  dispatch 
of  the  mails,  by  ships  and  railroads,  by  coaches  and  wag 
ons,  and  on  horseback,  and  their  compensation  ranges  from 
six  thousand  dollars  to  a  few  dollars  per  annum.  They  are 
all  appointed  indirectly  by  the  President,  and  hold  office 
during  his  pleasure.  Next  to  these  come  the  custom-house 
officers,  who,  including  all  grades,  number  not  less  than  five 
thousand  employes ;  after  these  comes  another  large  body, 
whose  business  is  to  collect  the  Internal  Revenue  of  the 
country ;  and  also  a  very  extensive  force  engaged  in  carry 
ing  on  the  interests  connected  with  the  Public  Lands,  the 
Indian  Tribes,  and  the  Judicial  business  in  the  various 
States  and  Territories,  as  well  as  those  interests  prosecuted 
under  the  authority  of  the  Patent  Office,  the  Pension  Office, 
and  the  Agricultural  Department.  Now,  as  the  people 
here  mentioned,  numbering  in  the  gross  not  far  from  sixty 
thousand  persons,  obtain  their  positions  through  political 
influence,  it  is  natural  that  they  should  take  a  special  inter- 

• 

est  in  politics,  and  do  their  utmost  for  the  success  of  the 


OFFICIAL   AXD    POLITICAL   LIFE.  151 

particular  party  to  which  they  belong.  Hence  the  great 
excitement  which  invariably  prevails  at  all  the  elections. 
As  before  intimated,  the  President  and  Vice-President  are 
voted  for  once  in  every  four  years  ;  and  the  Representatives 
in  Congress  once  in  two  years  ; — the  Senators  being  chosen 
by  the  State  Legislatures.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that 
as  the  people  are  intelligent  and  honest,  so  must  be  the 
office-holders ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case,  because  of 
the  existence  of  what  are  called  mere  politicians  or  dema 
gogues.  This  class  of  citizens  has  greatly  multiplied  of 
late  years,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  nearly  all  the.  troubles 
which  befall  the  country  are  the  result  of  their  petty 
schemes  and  selfish  intrigues.  There  is  not  a  village  in  the 
land  where  they  do  not  congregate,  or  pursue  in  secret  their 
unpatriotic  designs.  Of  course  there  are  many  exceptions 
to  this  state  of  things,  but  the  rule  is  as  we  have  stated  it ; 
and  the  evils  resulting  from  the  power  thus  obtained  and 
prostituted,  have  come  to  be  universally  recognized  and  de 
plored  by  the  honest  people  of  the  land.  The  loss  of  dig 
nity,  and  the  decline  in  public  morals  on  account  of  poli 
tics  is,  to-day,  a  source  of  mortification  anc!  alarm  among 
the  virtuous  and  patriotic  citizens  of  the  country.  The 
philosophy  of  government  is  a  subject  to  which  the  people 
of  America  have  devoted  but  little  attention,  and  very  few 
books  have  been  published  on  the  subject,  and  yet  it  is 
claimed  that  they  are  in.  advance  of  all  other  nations,  in  the 
practice  of  self-government.  To  what  extent  this  is  true, 
the  present  writer  is  not  called  upon  to  decide.  It  is  too 
true,  however,  that  the  opinion  is  frequently  expressed  by 
foreigners  that  the  unbridled  system  of  a  Republican  gov 
ernment  leads  to  many  political  troubles.  The  two  or 


152  LIFE   AND    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

three  crowning  features  of  the  American  Government  would 
seem  to  be  as  follows  :  That  the  nation  is  a  peculiar  organ 
ism,  having  a  life  and  destiny  of  its  own,  founded  on  the 
idea  of  humanity,  and  like  the  individual  person,  but  in  a 
more  continuous  degree ;  that  its  authority  to  govern  the 
people  is  derived  from  their  actual  or  implied  assent ;  and 
that,  in  asserting  its  prerogatives,  it  looks  to  the  least  pos 
sible  interference  with  the  free  action  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  community.  This  form  of  government  in 
volves  the  idea  of  contract,  tacit  or  expressed,  and  no  mat 
ter  how  it  may  be  carried  out,  must  rest  upon  the  under 
standing  of  the  people,  not  only  as  to  the  end  to  be  pur 
sued,  but  also  as  to  the  methods.  As  one  circle  within 
another,  so  does  the  government  of  each  State  and  Terri 
tory  revolve  within  the  circle  of  the  Union,  and  the  State, 
county,  and  town  elections,  for  offices  which  are  subject  to 
State  patronage,  are  precisely  similar  in  character  and  re 
sults  to  the  National  elections.  While  deprecating  the 
abuses  to  which  the  American  people  are  subject,  on  ac 
count  of  what  is  called  universal  suffrage,  there  are  many 
social  features  which  are  to  be  highly  commended,  and  are 
peculiar  to  the  country  ;  among  these  is  the  absence  of  pau 
perism,  and  the  universal  respectability  in  personal  appear 
ance  among  all  classes.  This  fact  is  apparent  to  all  observ 
ers,  and  has  been  fully  conceded  by  the  best  English  writers 
on  this  country.  There  is  no  beggary  here  except  such  as 
arises  from  profligacy  or  causes  beyond  the  control  of 
human  nature.  Another  peculiar  feature  of  American  life 
is,  the  equal  distribution  of  wealth,  acknowledged  as  re 
markably  characteristic  of  the  nation.  In  all  the  large 
cities  and  occasionally  in  the  country,  may  be  found  a  man 


OFFICIAL    AXD    POLITICAL    LIFE.  153 

possessing  enormous  wealth,  but  among  the  millions  of  our 
population  wealth  is  diffused,  and  there  is  a  wonderful 
equality  in  the  material  condition  of  the  population.  An 
other  phase  of  American  life,  to  which  we  have  already  allu 
ded,  and  which  has  astonished  the  governments  of  the 
Old  World,  is,  the  doctrine  of  universal  suffrage.  It  is 
this  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  her  institutions,  and  it  is 
this,  more  than  anything  else,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
superabundant  resources  of  the  country,  that  tends  to 
an  equal  distribution  of  wealth.  It  is  not,  as  a  noted 
English  statesman  has  said,  so  much  a  man's  wealth, 
which  the  American  people  recognize,  and  to  which  they 
pay  homage,  as  the  energy  and  ability  which  may  turn 
wealth  to  account.  In  theory,  as  well  as  in  reality,  they 
regard  equality  and  brotherhood  as  of  the  essence  of  the 
Constitution  under  which  they  live,  and  of  their  social  well- 
being  and  existence.  As  the  official  and  political  classes 
heretofore  touched  upon,  are  either  the  law-makers  of  the 
land,  or  engaged  in  carrying  out  the  laws,  it  may  be  well 
enough  to  notice  their  rights  and  privileges  under  those 
laws.  While  it  is  true  that  members  of  Congress,  and  some 
few  dignitaries  besides,  are  exempt  from  arrest  fftr  civil 
misdemeanors,  when  engaged  in  their  public  duties,  all 
persons  of  every  position  are  amenable  to  the  criminal  laws. 
A  leading  dignitary,  when  he  violates  the  law,  is  as 
promptly  brought  to  trial  as  the  humblest  man  in  the  com 
munity  ;  but  the  misfortune  is,  that  the  influence  possessed 
by  the  former  is  too  apt  to  keep  him  from  deserved  pun 
ishment,  while  the  latter  is  compelled  to  meet  a  less  happy 
fate.  The  titles  which  accompany  the  possession  of  office 
are  of  no  special  value,  and,  except  in  the  Army  and  Navy, 


154  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES   IX    AMERICA. 

terminate  with  the  office.  At  the  same  time  it  must  not 
be  supposed  that  the  Americans  are  without  the  sentiments 
which  grow  out  of  association  with  old  and  honored  fami 
lies.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  there  is  a  very  decided 
feeling  of  aristocracy,  but  it  is  peculiar  to  the  regions  which 
have  been  the  longest  settled.  The  privilege  of  receiving 
and  sending  letters  free  of  postage,  and  without  limit,  is 
enjoyed  only  by  the  President,  his  Cabinet,  the  heads  of 
Bureas,  and  Congressmen  ;  under  certain  official  restrictions, 
the  postmasters  may  frank  their  letters,  but,  -beyond  that, 
all  men  in  office  have  to  pay  postage  like  ordinary  people. 
When  a  young  man  has  determined  to  lead  a  political  life, 
his  first  desire  is  to  be  elected  to  the  State  Legislature, 
then  to  become  Governor  of  the  State,  and  from  that  posi 
tion  he  thinks  himself  entitled  to  go  into  the  United  States 
Senate  ;  but  there  is  no  uniformity  in  these  promotions. 
Generally  speaking,  the  career  of  public  men  in  this  coun 
try  is  measured  more  by  their  cunning  or  success  in  man 
aging  the  people  who  have  votes,  rather  than  by  their 
abilities.  Nor  does  their  political  success  depend  upon 
their  antecedents — upon  wealth  or  family  position.  Ten 
years  before  he  became  President,  Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  a 
leather-merchant ;  it  was  the  boast  of  Andrew  Johnson,  the 
late  president,  that  he  had  been  bred  a  tailor;  and  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  that  he  had  earned  his  living  in  early 
life  as  a  common  chopper  of  wrood,  or  rail-splitter.  The 
present  Minister  to  England  was  once  a  tutor  in  an  acad 
emy;  and  the  Ministers  to  France  and  Spain  were  both 
printers ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  does  occasionally  happen 
in  these  latter  days,  as  it  frequently  did  in  former  times, 
that  the  diplomatic  representatives  abroad  have  attained 


OFFICIAL   AND    POLITICAL    LIFE.  155 

high  positions,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  have 
been  men  of  culture  and  quiet  scholarship,  as  in  the  case 
of  Motley  and  Bancroft,  the  historians,  and  Marsh,  the 
distinguished  scholar  and  author.  The  present  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  was,  for  many  years,  a  merchant's  clerk; 
and  among  the  Senators  and  Representatives  are  men  who 
once  sold  dry  goods  for  a  living,  or  were  engaged  in  various 
mechanical  employments,  but  who  are  not  on  those  ac 
counts  less  esteemed  than  they  would  otherwise  have 
been.  But  when  a  notorious  gambler  or  profligate  is  elected 
to  Congress,  as  has  sometimes  been  the  case,  it  must  not 
be  supposed  that  the  American  people  are  indifferent  to  his 
antecedents.  The  most  striking  fact,  perhaps,  which  can 
be  mentioned,  by  way  of  illustrating  the  wonderful  elasticity 
of  the  American  Government,  is  this,  that  among  the  Rep-» 
resentatives  now  sitting  in  Congress  and  engaged  in  mould 
ing  the  laws,  are  several  persons,  members  of  the  negro- 
race,  who  were  once  slaves,  employed  upon  plantations, 
both  of  which  could  alike,  at  one  time,  have  been  sold  for 
a  specific  sum  of  money.  Although  there  are  many  in 
stances  among  the  State  governors,  where  men  have  risen 
to  eminence  from  obscurity,  the  people  have  generally  been 
more  careful  in  selecting  their  State  executives  than  in 
selecting  their  Congressmen  ;  and  what  we  have  said  in 
regard  to  the  changes  effected  by  politics  in  the  case  of 
prominent  officials,  is  equally  true,  in  a  less  degree,  of  all 
the  subordinate  office-holders.  And  now  the  question 
arises,  how  about  the  servants  of  the  public  after  they  have 
been  superseded  in  their  official  position  ?  It  cannot  be 
said  that  any  of  the  Presidents  have  ever  gone  into  any 
unbecoming  employment  after  leaving  the  Executive 


156  LIFE    AND   RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

chair;  but  it  is  not  uncommon  for  Ex-Congressmen  and 
other  ex-officials  of  the  so-called  higher  grades,  to  go  into 
all  sorts  of  inappropriate  employments,  from  a  govern 
ment  clerkship  to  a  claim  agency.  The  only  one  of  the 
presidents  who  consented  to  enter  Congress  after  leaving 
the  Executive  Chair  was  John  Quincy  Adams ;  but  his 
character  stood  so  high  as  a  man  and  a  statesman,  he  could 
afford  to  do  as  he  pleased  ;  and  to  die,  as  he  did,  in  the 
harness  of  public  life.  As  before  stated,  the  total  number 
of  men  who  have  served  the  country  as  law-makers,  is 
about  five  thousand ;  of  these,  the  legal  profession  has 
sent  the  largest  proportion :  the  men  of  letters  have  num 
bered  only  one  in  every  fifty :  the  eloquent  speakers,  or 
orators  of  special  note,  have  not  been  more  than  two  hun 
dred;  less  than  one-half  graduated  at  learned  institutions; 
while  the  balance  have  been  farmers  and  planters,  mer 
chants,  and  members  of  various  professions.  The  total 
number  of  men  who  have  held  Cabinet  appointments  is  one 
hundred  and  eighty-two,  of  whom  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  have  been  Congressmen  :  of  the  forty-four  Supreme 
Court  Judges,  one-half  of  them  served  in  the  Senate  or 
House  of  Representatives:  out  of  five  hundred  and  twen 
ty-seven  Foreign  Ministers,  one  hundred  and  seventy 
were  members  of  Congress ;  and  of  the  seven  hundred  and 
sixty-eight  State  and  Territorial  Governors,  three  hundred 
and  forty-nine  were  Congressmen.  The  treaty  which  has 
recently  been  made  between  the  American  and  English  Gov 
ernments,  consummates  a  long-wished-for  condition  of  affairs, 
viz.  :  a  cordial  good-will  with  all  the  great  Powers  of  Europe 
— Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  and  Spain. 
It  is  claimed,  indeed,  by  the  best  thinkers,  that  the  American 


OFFICIAL   AND    POLITICAL   LIFE.  157 

Government  was  never  more  powerful  and  influential  for 
good  than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Intercourse  and  trade 
between  the  two  continents,  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are 
growing  rapidly.  The  friendship  of  Japan  for  the  United 
States,  and  its  thorough  reciprocation  on  their  part,  are 
universally  acknowledged.  The  latter  seem  to  watch  atten 
tively  the  movements  of  England  and  other  European  Powers, 
in  the  far  East.  And  while  the  British  Government  may 
deem  it  wise  to  use  force  in  its  dealings  with  the  eastern 
nations,  the  American  policy  appears  to  adhere  resolutely  to 
the  principles  of  peace,  justice,  and  equal  rights  to  all,  not 
withstanding  the  late  unwarrantable  operations  of  the  Ameri 
can  Navy  on  the  coast  of  Corea.  The  changes  for  good 
that  have  taken  p]ace  in  Japan  during  the  last  few  years, 
are  a  matter  of  wonder  and  satisfaction  to  the  whole  civil 
ized  world.  The  American  people  have  been,  since  the 
memorable  visit  of  Commodore  Perry,  taking  great  and 
special  interest  in  the  affairs  of  Japan.  The  President  of 
the  United  States  has  justly  echoed  the  prevailing  sentiment 
among  the  Americans,  when  he  said  to  the  Prince  Fushimi, 
member  of  one  of  the  Imperial  families  of  the  Mikado,  that 
he  had  seen  with  pride  the  young  men  of  Japan  coming 
over  to  receive  their  education,  and  that  he  would  take  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  contriving  to  make  their  residence  in 
this  country  both  agreeable  and  useful  to  them.  There 
rests  upon  Japan  a  great  hope,  as  well  as  high  responsibility, 
for  the  success  of  bringing  about  a  healthy  and  exemplary 
civilization,  which  must  take  the  lead  among  all  the  Asiatic 
nations. 

P.  S.     In  view  of  the  changes  which  are  constantly  taking 


158  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES   IN    AMERICA. 

place  among  the  officials  of  the  American  Government,  to 
which  allusion  has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the 
writer  must  express  an  opinion.  They  are,  beyond  all  ques 
tion,  a  great  disadvantage  to  the  Republic.  They  naturally 
interfere  with  the  proper  and  regular  working  of  the  machin 
ery  of  the  Government,  and  are  the  primary  cause  of  the 
bitter  political  dissensions  which  have  long  prevailed,  and 
continue  to  prevail,  among  the  American  people.  And  what 
is  more,  they  lead  to  all  kinds  of  corruption ;  and  at  the 
very  time  of  our  writing  these  lines,  the  people  of  New 
York  are  greatly  convulsed  over  the  discovery  that  the 
Treasury  of  the  City  and  State  has  been  robbed  to  the  extent 
of  many  millions  of  dollars,  growing  directly  out  of  the  evils 
of  office-seeking,  and  rotation  in  office,  from  party  considera 
tions.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  confessed  that  where 
the  people  have  it  in  their  power,  as  in  America,  to  regulate 
the  conduct  of  the  men  they  elect  to  office,  so  long  as  they 
are  truly  honest,  they  can  always  prevent  a  long  continu 
ance  of  the  evils  brought  upon  them  by  unscrupulous  dema 
gogues.  Hence  the  great  importance  of  their  being  both 
virtuous  and  truly  patriotic. 


LIFE  AMONG   THE  FAEMEES  AND 
PLANTEES. 


Ix  the  present  paper  we  propose  to  give  a  comprehensive 
account  of  the  agricultural  population  of  the  United  States, 
and  shall  speak  of  farm-life  in  New  England  (the  East 
ern),  the  Middle,  and  Western  States;  and  of  plantation- 
life  in  the  Southern  States.  It  is  now  generally  acknowl 
edged  that  the  prosperity  of  America  depends  chiefly  upon 
its  agriculture,  and  that  it  has  come  to  be  considered  the 
granary  of  Europe.  The  area  of  land  susceptible  of  culti 
vation  has  been  estimated  to  be  about  two  thousand  two 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  (2,250,000,000)  of  acres,  more 
than  half  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Government;  five  hun 
dred  millions  (500,000,000)  having  been  surveyed,  and  is 
now  ready  for  occupation  ;  while  the  lands  under  cultivation 
amount  to  more  than  two  hundred  millions  (200,000,000) 
of  acres.  It  has  also  been  estimated  that  seven-eighths  of 
the  entire  population  of  the  country  are  engaged  in  agri 
cultural  pursuits,  or  in  the  various  professions  and  trades 
naturally  dependent  thereupon.  The  largest  wheat  crop 
ever  produced  in  the  States  was  in  1869,  when  the  yield 
amounted  to  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  millions  (264,000,- 
000)  of  bushels,  and,  as  the  average  price  was  one  dollar 
and  forty  cents  ($1.40),  the  total  cash  value  was  not  less 
than  $369,600,000.  The  quantity  of  corn  was  1,100,000,000 
bushels;  rye,  22,000,000;  barley,  28,000,000;  buckwheat, 


160  LIFE    AKD    RESOURCES    IK    AMERICA. 

17,000,000;  oats,  275,000,000.  and  potatoes,  111,000,000; 
hay,  22,000,000  tons;  tobacco,  310,000,000  pounds;  cane- 
sugar,  120,000,000  pounds,  and  cotton,  1,767,000,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $147,380,000.  And,  as  to  domestic  ani 
mals,  including  young  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  swine,  their 
value  was  $978,872,785. 

With  these  few  leading  facts  before  him,  the  reader  may 
obtain  an  approximate  idea  of  the  agricultural  wealth  of 
the  country :  and  he  must  remember,  that  the  very  nume 
rous  unmentioned  articles  would  swell  the  agricultural 
supplies  to  the  extent  of  many  additional  millions.  It  is 
claimed  by  English  farmers  that,  in  some  particulars,  their 
method  of  farming  is  superior  to  that  practised  in  this 
country,  and  that  is  undoubtedly  true ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  leading  grains 
can  be  produced  at  a  much  lower  cost  in  the  United  States 
than  in  England.  As  this  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural 
country,  it  follows  that  here  the  most  numerous  attempts 
to  produce  labor-saving  implements  have  been  directed  to 
facilitate  the  labors  of  the  farm.  The  extent  to  which  new 
agricultural  inventions  have  been  patented  is  so  great,  that 
in  1869  they  reached  the  number  of  nineteen  hundred 
(1,900),  and  all  of  them  for  saving  muscular  power  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  household.  A  particular  account  of  them 
is  as  follows:  Churns  and  churning,  130;  Corn-shellers 
and  buskers,  40;  Cultivators,  150;  Diggers  and  spaders, 
30;  Fertilizers,  6;  Forks  (hay,  manure,  etc.),  100;  Har 
rows,  drays,  and  pulverizers,  80 ;  Harvesters  and  attach 
ments,  195;  Hay-spreaders,  25;  Hoes,  25;  Mowing  and 
reaping  machines,  30;  Planters,  150;  Ploughs  and  attach 
ments,  255  ;  Pruning,  15  ;  Rakes,  90  ;  Seeding  and  sowing, 


LIFE   AMOXG   THE   FARMERS   AND    PLANTERS.         10 1 

80 ;  Separators  and  smut-machines,  50 ;  Straw,  hay,  and 
fodder-cutters,  30 ;  Threshing-machines,  35 ;  and  Yokes, 
15.  In  the  more  settled  parts  of  the  country  the  old- 
fashioned  varieties  of  the  hoe,  the  spade,  and  even  the 
ploughshare,  are  now  looked  upon  as  barbarous  con 
trivances,  and  in  their  place  the  farmers  use  what  are 
called  Steam-ploughs,  the  Rotary  Spade,  the  Sulky-plough, 
Horse-Cultivators,  Shovel-ploughs,  as  well  as  Reaping, 
Mowing,  and  Threshing  machines,  of  many  varieties.  The 
improvements  that  have  been  made  in  such  tools  as  the 
shovel,  spade,  hoe,  and  fork,  are  so  great  that  they  may  al 
most  be  considered  entirely  new  inventions.  With  regard  to 
these  and  many  other  implements  of  husbandry  in  America, 
lightness,  simplicity,  and  comparative  cheapness  are  abso 
lutely  essential  to  their  perfection.  One  of  the  effects,  if 
not  the  most  important,  of  these  labor-saving  machines  has 
been,  that,  while  one  man  has  been  kept  in  the  field,  three 
have  been  sent  to  the  great  towns  to  prosecute  other 
enterprises  of  profit,  or  have  entered  upon  the  cultivation 
of  other  farms.  The  organization  of  Agricultural  Societies, 
which  have  done  much  to  perfect  the  science  of  tilling  the 
soil,  was  commenced  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Government  in  1775,  and  their  influence,  in  connection 
with  annual  fairs,  has  been  wide-spread,  and  of  the  greatest 
advantage.  There  is  not  a  State  in  the  Union  which  does 

Z3 

not  boast  of  one  of  them,  organized  for  the  benefit  of  all 
the  inhabitants  at  large.  Nor  ought  the  fact  to  be  for 
gotten,  that  there  are  already  many  Agricultural  Colleges 
in  the  country,  and  that  they  are  annually  increasing  in 
numbers  and  influence.  And  then,  again,  the  agricultural 
periodicals  are  numerous  and  of  high  repute. 


162  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES   IN    AMERICA. 

But  notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  experienced  men 
have  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  condition  of  agricul 
ture  in  this  country  is  not  what  might  be  desired.  The  great 
trouble  is  the  want  of  proper  method.  The  art  is  as  yet 
imperfectly  known  and  practised,  and  the  American  system 
is  full  of  deficiencies.  The  domain  of  the  United  States  em 
braces  soil  capable  of  yielding  the  richest  and  most  varied 
productions,  in  the  greatest  abundance ;  and  it  is  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  country,  that  all  the  lands  which  have  been 
sold  by  the  Government,  or  are  still  owned  by  the  same, 
are  surveyed  upon  a  system  of  squares,  and  divided  into 
townships  of  six  miles  square,  subdivided  into  sections  and 
quarter  sections,  whereby  the  farms  are  generally  regular 
in  shape,  and  disputes  are  avoided  in  regard  to  boundary 
lines.  The  lands  belonging  to  the  Government  are  sold  at 
the  uniform  price  of  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  ($1.25)  per 
acre,  so  that  for  one  hundred  dollars  a  new  settler  can 
receive  a  farm  of  eighty  acres;  but,  under  existing  laws,  a 
foreigner,  as  well  as  a  native,  if  of  age  and  intending  to 
become  a  citizen,  obtains  a  homestead  substantially  as  a 
free  gift.  The  total  quantity  of  land  owned  by  the 
Government  was  1,834,968,400  acres;  of  which  447,266,190 
acres  have  been  sold ;  and  the  amount  now  for  sale  is 
1,387,732,209  acres.  That  the  National  Government  takes 
a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  agricultural  popula 
tion  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  a  Department  of  Agricul 
ture  exists  in  Washington,  which  annually  publishes  a 
very  valuable  volume  of  miscellaneous  information,  and 
supplies  seeds  and  cuttings  for  all  who  may  apply  for 
them,  while  the  postal  laws  of  the  country  allow  their 
transportation  through  the  mails  free  of  expense  ;  the  same 


LIFE    AMONG    FARMERS    AND    PLANTERS.  163* 

laws  making  only  a  small  charge  for  the  exchange  of  seeds, 
cuttings,  and  plants  between  private  parties :  but  more 
than  all  that,  the  National  Government  has  recently  made 
a  grant  of  seven  millions  (7,000,000)  of  acres  of  land  for 
the  benefit  of  Agricultural  Colleges,  and  propositions  are 
now  pending  for  giving  away  nearly  twenty  millions 
(20,000,000)  acres  of  land  for  objects  directly  or  indirectly 
connected  with  the  farming  population  of  the  Republic. 
The  total  number  of  farms  in  the  United  States  is  about 
three  millions,  which  gives  a  farm  for  every  thirteen  of 
the  entire  population ;  and  the  largest  proportion  of  these 
farms  range  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  acres. 

And  now  we  propose  to  give  a  description  in  general 
terms  of  farm-life  in  the  New  England  States  (the  six 
Eastern  States),  viz. :  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp 
shire,  Vermont,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island.  In  this 
region  the  farms  are  almost  universally  small,  ranging  from 
ten  to  one  hundred  acres,  and  stone-fences  predominate 
above  all  other  kinds.  The  agricultural  season  is  short, 
winter  lasting  through  half  the  year.  No  verdure  but  that 
of  evergreens  resists  the  annual  cold,  and  an  unmelted  mass 
of  snow  covers  the  ground  for  months.  The  soils,  except 
ing  in  the  more  extensive  valleys,  are  poor  and  rocky,  and 
aside  from  those  farms  which  are  given  up  chiefly  to  the 
grazing  of  cattle  or  the  production  of  hay,  the  products  of 
the  earth  are  only  obtained  by  the  severest  kind  of  labor. 
Along  the  sea-shore,  kelp  and  fish  are  popular  manures, 
but  in  the  interior,  guano,  calcareous  manures,  and  the 
yield  of  the  barn-yards  are  employed.  The  owner  is,  him 
self,  the  foremost  workman,  and  his  sons,  his  principal 
assistants:  and  all  household  matters  are  performed  by  the 


164  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

females  of  the  family.  The  farmers  live  in  comfortable 
frame  houses,  very  frequently  surrounded  with  flowers,  use 
both  coal  and  wood  for  fuel,  and  are  noted  for  their  fru 
gality  and  neatness.  Their  barns  are  spacious  and  sub 
stantial.  They  produce  nothing  for  exportation,  but  a 
greater  variety  of  crops  than  the  more  extensive  farmers, 
and  are  quite  content  if  they  can  obtain  a  plain,  comforta 
ble  support.  In  Vermont,  the  raising  of  superior  breeds 
of  horses  has  been  a  specialty,  but  for  farm-work,  oxen  are 
more  popular  than  horses.  If  the  farmers  happen  to  have 
a  small  surplus  of  any  commodity,  they  dispose  of  it  in  a 
neighboring  town  ;  and  thus  provide  themselves  with  lux 
uries,  or  put  aside  a  little  money  for  a  rainy  day.  In  some 
localities  agriculture  is  often  joined  to  other  employments, 
such  as  iishing  and  shoemaking.  The  farmers  in  New 
England,  as  well  as  throughout  the  country,  are  generally 
a  reading  people,  and  profit  somewhat  by  the  published 
theories  on  the  science  of  agriculture.  Their  children  have 
access  to  the  country  schools,  but  the  sons  are  often  obliged 
to  help  their  parents  in  the  field  during  the  vernal  months, 
so  that  their  principal  time  for  study  is  in  the  winter. 
They  are  a  church-going  people,  and,  to  the  extent  of  their 
means,  liberal  in  furthering  the  cause  to  which  they  may 
be  attached.  They  take  an  interest  in  politics,  and  are 
decided  in  their  opiniqns.  They  are  social  in  their  dispo 
sitions,  fond  of  visiting  their  friends,  and  on  winter  even 
ings  have  what  they  call  apple-paring  and  bed-quilting 
frolics,  when  their  homes  are  cheered  by  such  refreshments 
as  mince  and  pumpkin  pies,  as  well  as  cider,  walnuts,  and 
apples.  Their  amusements  are  as  various  as  their  tastes, 
but  the  perpetual  struggle  with  mother  earth  for  the  means 


LIFE    AMOXG    FARMERS    AXD    PLANTERS.  165 

of  living,  makes  them  careful  of  their  time,  and  is  apt  to 
induce  and  keep  alive  the  most  serious  views  of  life.  On 
farms  lying  in  the  vicinity  of  villages,  it  is  often  the  case, 
that  certain  members  of  the  family  obtain  positions  in  the 
factories  or  other  manufacturing  establishments,  whereby 
they  are  enabled  to  increase  their  means  of  support.  As 
soon  as  the  boys  attain  the  age  of  manhood,  they  find  their 
fields  of  operation  circumscribed,  and  leaving  the  paternal 
roof,  wander  forth  into  the  world  to  make  their  own  for 
tunes : — some  of  them  to  the  turmoil  and  strife  of  the  large 
cities,  and  others  to  the  more  inviting  regions  of  the  great, 
and  not  yet  fully  developed,  West.  In  New  England,  farm- 
life  is  to-day  very  much  what*  it  was  a  generation  ago; 
and  from  the  very  nature  of  the  cold  and  barren  soil,  will 
so  continue  without  any  marked  progress.  The  farmers 
have  done  their  best,  in  fact  all  that  could  be  done;  every 
thing  is  finished,  and  they  are  contented.  It  is  not  that  the 
spirit  of  competition  has  died  out  there.  That  the  agri 
cultural  interests  of  New  England  have  reached  and  passed 
the  period  of  culmination  is  undoubtedly  true.  The  farmers 
of  this  region  are  more  truly  the  yeomanry  of  the  land 
than  any  other  class,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them  are 
natives  of  the  soil  they  now  cultivate,  and,  like  the  venera 
ble  oaks  and  elms  which  adorn  many  of  their  farms,  they 
are  content  to  live  in  the  present  as  in  the  past,  hoping 
that  any  family  offshoots  that  may  have  been  planted  in 
more  congenial  and  productive  soils  will  be,  as  they  have 
been  in  unnumbered  instances,  a  blessing  to  their  descend 
ants. 

We  now  pass  over  into  what  are  called  the  four  Middle 
States  of  the  Union,  viz. :  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 


166  LIFE   A^D    RESOURCES    IH   AMERICA. 

Jersey,  and  Delaware,  where  we  shall  find  a  somewhat 
different  condition  of  affairs,  bat  with  the  stamp  of  New 
England  manners  and  customs  everywhere  visible.  There 
the  average  size  of  farms  is  between  one  hundred  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  acres,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  soil  is 
productive.  The  fences  are  usually  made  of  rails,  and 
every  variety  of  manure  is  employed.  If  not  rich,  the 
farmers  are  in  easy  circumstances,  and  count  upon  annually 
laying  up  something  handsome  in  the  way  of  profits. 
Though  well  posted  in  their  business,  by  years  of  practical 
experience,  they  employ  a  needed  supply  of  hands,  who 
do  most  of  the  hard  work,  while  their  own  time  is  occupied 
with  the  lighter  duties  of  the  farm  and  a  general  super 
vision  of  affairs.  Their  houses  are  comfortable  and  often 
elegant,  and  afford  ample  accommodation  for  the  proprietor, 
his  family,  and  his  assistants.  While  those  of  New  York, 
where  the  native  American  element  prevails,  fare  sumptu 
ously  on  the  food  of  their  own  raising,  and  have  become 
celebrated  for  their  superior  butter  and  cheese,  the  farmers 
of  Dutch  descent,  located  in  Pennsylvania,  are  charged 
with  never  eating  what  might  be  readily  sold  at  the  nearest 
market.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  these  farmers  that  their 
barns  are  unequalled  in  this  country,  oftentimes  better  than 
the  houses  they  live  in,  and  that  with  them,  the  profits  of 
their  style  of  farming  are  always  satisfactory.  With 
regard  to  the  cheese  business,  it  has  come  to  be  so  exten 
sive  that  we  may  allude  to  it  more  particularly.  The 
entire  produce  of  last  year  was  about  one  hundred  millions 
of  pounds,  three-fourths  of  which  was  made  in  the  Middle 
States,  but  the  largest  amount  in  New  York. 

From  time  immeirorial  the  Dutch  have  had  control  of 


LIFE    AMOXG    FARMERS   AKD    PLANTERS.  167 

this  business,  but  the  exports  from  this  country  are  now 
about  double  of  the  exports  from  Holland.  Formerly  it 
was  the  custom  of  the  farmers  to  make  cheese  upon  their 
respective  farms,  but  it  is  now  made  in  regularly  established 
factories,  which  are  supported  by  the  farmers  located  in 
their  vicinity.  The  total  number  of  these  factories  now 
flourishing  in  this  country  is  thirteen  hundred,  and  they  are 
supplied  with  milk  from  not  less  than  three  hundred 
thousand  cows.  In  New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  and  on 
Long  Island,  where  the  chief  attention  is  devoted  to  fruits 
and  vegetables,  and  where  are  to  be  found  the  most  beau 
tiful  gardens  in  the  country,  the  hired  hands  are  more 
numerous  than  elsewhere,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the, 
farms  or  gardens,  but  their  positions  are  not  so  permanent. 
Various  kinds  of  berries  are  here  raised  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  and  the  surplus  hands  left  unemployed  after 
the  annual  gatherings  have  to  seek  other  employment. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  proprietor  joins  his 
hired  men  in  the  work  to  be  done,  whether  in  casting  the 
seed,  driving  the  machinery  employed,  or  gathering  in  the 
harvests  ;  they  all  occupy  the  same  platform  as  citizens, 
whether  naturalized,  or  natives  of  the  country  :  free  access 
to  schools  and  churches  is  enjoyed  by  all,  without  regard 
to  family  or  fortune  ;  and  the  man  who  is  working  to-day 
as  a  hired  hand,  knows  full  well,  that  if  he  continues  to  be 
true  to  himself  and  his  opportunities,  he  will  yet  be  res 
pected  as  a  proprietor.  By  means"  of  newspapers  and  books, 
they  keep  up  with  the  spirit  of  the  age  ;  and,  though  gener 
ally  disinclined  to  participate  in  the  partisan  squabbles  of  the 
day,  they  are  by  no  means  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  the 
country,  and  are  frequently  called  upon  to  fill  offices  of  trust 


168  LIFE   A^D   KESOUKCES   IN   AMERICA. 

and  honor.  They  rise  early,  eat  a  frugal  meal  at  noon,  and 
retire  at  the  coming  on  of  darkness,  excepting  in  the  winter, 
which  is  their  time  for  visiting  and  home  enjoyments;  and 
this  is  true  of  the  farming  classes  generally  throughout  the 
country.  What  are  called  fancy  farmers  are  probably 
more  numerous  in  the  Middle  States  than  in  any  other 
region,  but  these  men  are  apt  to  spend  more  money  than 
they  make;  and  an  idea  of  the  wealth  which  some  of  them 
attain,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  there  is  one 
family  in  the  Valley  of  the  Genesee,  in  New  York,  who 
own  not  less  than  thirty  thousand  acres  of  land,  and  all  of 
it  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation.  It  is  this  class  of  the 
more  wealthy  farmers,  residing  in  all  the  States,  who  greatly 
benefit  the  country  by  introducing  the  best  kinds  of  stock 
from  foreign  countries,  who  have  been  known  to  pay 
twenty  thousand  dollars  for  a  single  stallion  (horse),  two 
or  three  thousand  for  a  heifer,  a  ram,  or  a  bull,  or  one  hun 
dred  dollars  for  a  trio  of  fowls,  consisting  of  one  male  and 
two  females.  It  was  one  of  these  extensive  farmers  who 
inaugurated  the  plan  of  issuing  printed  cards  with  the  fol 
lowing  regulations,  for  the  guidance  of  his  men  :  "  Regu 
larity  in  hours.  Punctuality  in  cleaning  and  putting  away 
implements.  Humanity  to  all  the  animals.  Neatness  and 
cleanliness  in  personal  appearance.  Decency  in  deport 
ment  and  conversation.  Obedience  to  the  proprietor,  and 
ambition  to  excel  in  farming/'  Extensive  .and  various  as 
are  the  farming  interests  of  the  Middle  States,  and  so  great 
are  the  temptations  to  go  farther  west,  the  demand  for  farm 
hands  and  female  servants  is  always  greater  than  the  sup 
ply,  and  while  the  men  receive  from  fifteen  to  thirty  dol 
lars  per  month,  with  board,  the  women  receive  from  eight 


LIFE   AMOXG   FARMERS   AXD    PLANTERS.  169 

to  fifteen  dollars  per  month  for  home-work,  and  of  these, 
by  fiir  the  largest  proportion  are  from  England,  Ireland, 
and  Germany.  The  secret  of  the  unparalleled  growth  and 
the  daily  increasing  power  of  the  United  States  is,  that  the 
Government,  in  its  practical  working,  is  confined  to  the 
narrowest  limits ;  that  it  is  the  agent,  not  the  master,  of 
the  people;  and  that  the  latter  initiate  all  changes  in  its 
political  and  social  life.  It  is,  therefore,  the  condition  of 
the  success  of  a  settlement  that  the  immigrant  relies  on 
his  own  strength,  acts  on  his  own  responsibility,  and  seeks 
by  his  own  efforts  the  prosperity  which  lie  is  sure  to  find, 
if  undisturbed.  In  spite  of  obstacles  and  disappointments, 
he  will  make  his  way,  and  ultimately  attain  his  objects. 
In  the  States  now  under  consideration,  as  well  as  in  all  the 
States  of  the  Union,  excepting  New  York  and  a  few 
others,  a  married  woman  may  not  convey  her  separate 
real  estate,  except  in  a  joint  deed  with  her  husband ;  and 
yet,  in  most  of  the  States,  the  separate  property  of  the  wife 
is  recognized.  There  is  no  imprisonment  for  debt  in  any 
part  of  the  Republic ;  and,  when  a  farmer  has  become  in 
volved  (in  more  than  half  the  States),  his  homestead  is 
exempt  from  execution ;  and  in  all  of  them,  household  fur 
niture  to  the  extent  of  five  hundred  dollars,  wearing  ap 
parel,  tools,  and  books  necessary  to  carry  on  business,  one 
to  five  cows,  one  yoke  of  oxen,  ten  sheep,  carts,  and  farm 
ing  implements,  and  the  uniform  and  arms  of  any  man 
who  is  or  has  been  in  the  public  service,  are  also  exempt 
from  the  grasp  of  the  creditor.  When  the  head  of  a  family 
dies  without  making  a  will,  his  property  is  equally  divided 
among  his  children  or  their  offspring,  except  that  the  wife 
has  a  life-interest  of  one-third,  called  the  widow's  dower ; 


170  LLFE   A:N~D    RESOURCES    I2ST   AMERICA. 

and  when  there  are  no  lineal  descendants,  the  estate  goes 
to  the  next  of  kin. 

The  next  division  of  farm-life  we  have  to  consider,  is  that 
of  the  Western  States.  Of  these  there  are  sixteen  in  all, 
thirteen  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  three  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Their  extent  is  so  immense,  and  their 
products  so  numerous,  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  mind  to 
comprehend  their  importance  and  influence.  Four  of  them 
were,  until  recently,  classed  among  the  Slave  States ;  and 
because  the  system  of  slave-labor  therein  has  become 
greatly  modified  by  free-labor,  they  can  hardly  be,  with 
propriety,  embraced  in  our  present  review.  As  a  wheat- 
producing  region,  the  Western  States  have  progressed  in  a 
manner  perfectly  amazing,  until  they  now  stand  unsur 
passed  by  any  other  region  of  like  extent  in  the  world. 
Although  the  population  has  increased  about  fifty  per  cent, 
in  the  last  twenty  years,  the  increase  of  produce  has  greatly 
exceeded  that  of  population.  But  the  relative  value  of  all 
the  other  cereals  and  other  farm  productions  in  these  States  is 
quite  as  extensive  and  remarkable  as  that  of  wheat.  That 
the  people  who  are  annually  bringing  out  of  the  soil  such  im 
mense  wealth  are  wide-awake  and  industrious,  is  self-evident. 
Generally  speaking,  the  farms  are  much  larger  than  those 
in  the  Middle  States,  and  the  farm-hands  very  much  more 
numerous.  Very  many  of  the  farmers  with  whom  we 
come  in  contact,  seem  to  have  settled  in  the  country  with 
limited  means.  Some  bought  land  with  no  more  money 
than  would  pay  the  first  installment  on  it,  and  had  to  work 
for  others  to  make  money  to  pay  the  other  installments  as 
they  came  due.  They  are  able,  in  this  way,  in  a  few  years 
to  settle  down  and  cultivate  their  own  soil :  and  this  meth- 


LIFE   AMONG   FARMERS   AND   PLANTERS.  171 

od  of  operating  is  in  progress  to-day.  When  farms  are 
rented,  which  is  often  done,  the  system  adopted  is  as  foU 
lows:  If  the  tenant  is  not  able  to  provide  stock,  imple 
ments,  and  seeds,  the  proprietor  supplies  him  with  all  these, 
and  then  allows  him  one-third  of  the  grain-crops.  In  thia 
way  many  a  man  works  himself  into  a  farm  of  his  own. 
The  ordinary  rate  of  interest  on  borrowed  money  is  ten 
per  cent.,  but  even  at  this  high  rate  it  usually  pays  a  farm 
er  well,  and  there  is  every  facility  given  to  respectable  and 
industrious  men.  There  are  often  cultivated  farms  in 
the  market  for  sale,  but  persons  desiring  to  purchase  can 
not  always  be  present ;  and,  in  buying  second-hand  farms, 
it  is  well  to  be  certain  that  it  has  not  been  previously 
mortgaged.  As  is  the  case  in  all  other  branches  of  business, 
the  man  who  has  the  best  capacity  is  likely  to  be  the  most 
successful,  and  the  operations  of  some  of  the  more  famous 
farmers  in  the  West  sound  more  like  romance  than  reality. 
For  example,  there  was  lately  one  farm  in  Illinois  which 
contained  about  forty  thousand  acres,  with  one  pasture- 
field  of  eight  thousand  acres ;  its  chief  production  wras 
corn,  all  of  which  was  consumed  upon  the  farm  itself;  but 
in  one  year  the  proprietor  sent  to  New  York  City  cattle 
enough  to  bring  seventy  thousand  dollars,  while  his  home- 
stock  was  valued  at  one  million  of  dollars ;  and  yet,  the 
man  lived  in  a  small  house,  in  the  most  simple  and  unpre 
tending  style,  and  habitually  sat  down  at  the  same  table 
with  his  hired  men.  But  the  farming  exploits  of  this  man 
were  eclipsed  subsequently  by  those  of  another,  wrho  is  now 
carrying  on  a  farm  of  fifty  thousand  acres.  With  regard 
to  another  of  the  model  farms  of  Illinois,  we  may  state, 
that  it  contains  thirty-six  thousand  acres,  and  last  year  had 


172  LIFE    AXD   RESOURCES   1]$"    AMERICA. 

one  cornfield  of  five  thousand  five  hundred  acres,  yielding 
two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  bushels,  three  thousand 
tons  of  hay,  four  thousand  head  of  cattle,  and  gave  employ 
ment  to  eighty-five  ploughs,  fifteen  planting  machines,  and 
fifteen  mowing  machines.  The  hedge  fencing  on  this  farm 
measures  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  and  contains 
also  about  eighty  miles  of  board  fencing.  There  is,  however, 
still  another  farm,  located  in  Illinois,  which  ought  to  be  men 
tioned  in  this  place,  as  it  is  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
extensive  and  successful  in  the  world.  It  is  called  the  Burr 
Oak  Farm,  and  is  owned  by  a  man  named  Sullivant.  It 
embraces  sixty-five  square  miles;  and  although  the  owner 
commenced  work  upon  it  only  four  years  ago,  he  has  at  the 
present  time  growing  upon  it  not  less  than  eleven  thousand 
acres  of  corn,  and  five  thousand  acres,  besides,  planted  in 
miscellaneous  crops.  The  hedges  which  cross,  re-cross,  and 
surround  the  farm,  measure  three  hundred  miles,  the  board 
fences  six  miles,  and  the  ditches  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
The  workingmen  employed  on  this  farm  are  mostly  Swedes 
and  Germans,  number  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and  are  con 
stantly  employed  from  the  first  of  April  to  the  first  of  Jan 
uary.  They  work  ten  hours  per  day,  report  to  the  propri 
etor  every  evening,  and  are  not  allowed  the  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks.  The  working  animals  of  the  farm  con 
sist  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  mules,  fifty  horses,  and  fifty 
yoke  of  oxen,  and  it  is  amply  supplied  with  the  ordinary 
stock  of  an  extensive  farm  ;  and  the  leading  machinery 
employed  consists  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  steel  ploughs, 
seventy-five  breaking  ploughs;  one  "hundred  and  forty-two 
cultivators;  forty-five  corn-planters,  and  twenty-five  har 
rows  ;  and  it  has  ore  ditching  plough  which  is  drawn  by 


LIFE   AMONG   FARMERS    AND   PLANTERS.  173 

sixty-eight  oxen  and  managed  by  eight  men.  The  house  in 
which  the  proprietor  resides  is  a  common  wooden  structure, 
comfortable,  but  without  the  least  pretension.  It  will  be 
understood,  of  course,  that  farms  of  this  extent  are  not 
found  in  every  county  or  State  ;  but  they  give  us  an  idea 
of  the  spirit  that  animates  the  farming  fraternity  generally. 
Let  us  now,  on  the  other  hand,  look  at  the  operations  of 
one  or  two  small  farmers  in  Illinois.  One  man,  for  example, 
purchased  eighty  acres  of  prairie  land  for  8360  ;  spent 
8500  on  improvements;  his  crops  for  the  first  year  brought 
him  over  $1,500,  and  at  the  close  of  the  third  year  his 
farm  was  sold  for  $2,000.  Another  man,  with  a  capital  of 
only  8700,  bought  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  :  his  annual 
produce  for  six  years  was  $2,000,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
he  was  worth  about  ten  thousand  dollars.  And  such 
instances  as  the  above  have  occurred  by  the  thousand  in 
the  great  West.  As  we  glance  over  the  immense  number 
of  farmers  who  are  toiling  throughout  the  western  States, 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  depict  their  manners  and  customs 
with  anything  like  accuracy.  So  many  are  the  nationalities 
which  compose  the  great  mass  of  inhabitants,  the  mere  men 
tion  of  these  is  indeed  a  kind  of  description.  In  Illinois  and 
Ohio,  the  Germans,  Irish,  and  English  are  about  equally  divi 
ded,  inWisconsin  the  English  and  Germans  predominate,  and 
Missouri  is  most  extensively  settled  by  the  Germans.  In  the 
States  bordering  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Upper  Mississippi 
several  Scandinavian  colonies  have  been  established ;  and 
there  has  been  a  considerable  immigration  of  Chinese  into 
California,  but  this  latter  class  has  not  manifested  any 
strong  predisposition  for  agricultural  pursuits.  The  great 
variety  of  nationalities  which  sometimes  congregate  in  one 


174  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN  AMERICA. 

region,  was  strikingly  exemplified  a  few  years  ago,  when 
the  State  of  Wisconsin  was  obliged  to  publish  its  Govern 
or's  message  in  not  less  than  eight  languages.  The  amount 
of  money  sent  across  the  ocean  by  immigrants,  to  friends 
left  behind,  principally  to  pay  their  passage  to  America,  is 
surprising.  From  the  official  returns  of  Emigration  Com 
missioners  of  England,  it  appears  that  in  1870  there  were 
sent  from  this  country  to  Ireland,  principally,  $3,630,040 
in  gold,  of  which  $1,663,190,  was  for  pre-paid  passage.  In 
the  twenty-three  years  from  1848  to  1870,  the  amount  of 
money  sent  was  $81,670,000  in  gold,  being  an  average  of 
about  $3,889,047  yearly.  But  this  amount  is  probably 
somewhat  below  the  actual  amount,  as  it  only  includes 
what  has  been  sent  through  banks  and  commercial  houses. 
And  these  sums,  large  as  they  are,  are  made  up  by  careful 
savings  from  the  wages  of  servant-girls  and  farm -laborers. 
In  California,  Missouri,  and  Ohio,  the  grape  has  been  so 
extensively  cultivated  as  to  give  them  the  reputation  of 
being  the  wine-producing  regions  of  the  United  States ; 
and  among  their  vineyards  we  find  many  of  the  habits  pre 
vailing  which  are  common  to  the  wine  districts  of  Europe. 
In  California  a  farm  is  called  a  ranch,  and  one  of  the  most 
noted  ones  in  that  State  may  be  described  as  follows  :  It 
contains  eighteen  thousand  (18,000)  acres;  and  last  year 
sixteen  hundred  (1,600)  acres  were  devoted  to  wheat, 
eight  hundred  (800)  to  barley,  two  hundred  (200)  to  oats, 
two  hundred  (200)  to  meadow,  and  about  fifteen  thousand 
(15,000)  acres  to  orchards,  vineyards,  and  pasturage.  The 
fruit-trees  number  eight  thousand  (8,000,)  the  grape-vines 
fifty  thousand  (50,000)  ;  and  the  live  stock  consists  of  two 
hundred  (200)  horses,  one  thousand  (1,000)  head  of  cattle, 


LIFE    AMOXG    FARMERS    AND    PLANTERS.  175 

three  thousand  (3,000)  sheep,  and  two  thousand  (2,000) 
swine ;  and  the  entire  domain  is  surrounded  with  good 
fences.  From  the  above  and  other  facts  already  narrated, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  United  States  are  supplied  with  all 
kinds  of  farmers  ;  some  cultivating  their  thousands  of 
acres,  and  others  their  half  dozen  ;  and  yet  they  all  seem 
to  live  comfortably,  and  the  great  majority  are  inde 
pendent.  And  there  are  numerous  instances  of  American 
Avomen  who  have  been,  and  are  to-day,  quite  successful  in 
the  management  of  farms  ;  and  what  will  be  the  result 
upon  the  agricultural  and  industrial  interests  of  the  exten 
sive  emigration  from  China  to  this  country  now  going  on, 
is  a  problem  which  can  only  be  settled  by  the  future. 

Our  next  subject  for  consideration  is  the  plantation-life 
of  the  Southern  States.  Only  about  six  years  have  now 
passed  away  since  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  which  resulted 
in  the  emancipation  of  more  than  four  millions  of  slaves  ; 
and  a  glance  at  the  condition  of  the  South,  before  the  great 
event,  would  seem  to  be  necessary.  In  1860  there  were 
fifteen  States  in  which  slavery  existed,  and  all  of  them, 
excepting  five,  made  war  upon  the  General  Government — 
four  of  them  having  already  been  mentioned  as  among  the 
"Western  States.  They  contained  a  population  of  4,334,250, 
of  whom  only  383,637  were  slave-owners.  The  number  of 
plantations  under  cultivation  was  estimated  at  765,000, 
comprehending  about  75,000,000  of  acres  :  and  as  to  the  cot 
ton  and  sugar,  rice,  wheat,  corn,  and  live  stock,  which  were 
produced  upon  them,  they  can  only  be  appreciated  by  con 
sulting  the  publications  of  the  Census  Office.  The  planter 
was  the  owner,  not  only  of  broad  acres  almost  without 
number,  but  also  of  from  ten  to  one  thousand  menials  or 


176  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

slaves,  whom  he  fed  and  clothed  for  his  own  exclusive  profit ; 
and  who,  for  the  most  part,  did  his  bidding  without  a  mur 
mur  or  thought  beyond  the  passing  hour.  He  lived  at  his 
ease,  among  books  and  in  the  dispensation  of  a  liberal  hospi 
tality,  leaving  all  the  labor  on  his  plantation  to  the  direction 
of  an  overseer,  who  spent  most  of  his  time  on  horseback, 
issuing  orders  to  the  working  men  and  women,  and  watch 
ing  the  regular  progress  of  affairs.  According  to  his  wealth, 
the  planter  lived  in  a  house,  or  an  elegant  mansion,  while 
his  slaves  were  domiciled  in  rude  but  comfortable  cabins. 
They  received  a  supply  of  provisions,  but  no  compensation 
in  money ;  although  it  was  customary  to  allow  them  the  use 
of  a  patch  of  ground  for  their  own  benefit,  and  a  fragment 
of  time  out  of  each  day  or  week  to  cultivate  it.  But  all 
this  is  now  changed :  slave-labor  has  no  existence  on  the 
soil  of  the  United  States :  and  the  opinion  is  universal, 
that  the  suppression  of  slave-labor  will  ultimately  add 
greatly  to  the  national  advancement  of  all  the  States  in 
which  it  formerly  existed.  Among  the  results  following 
the  late  rebellion,  was  the  fact  that  much  of  the  property 
in  the  Southern  States  passed  into  new  hands.  Many  old 
plantations  were  abandoned  by  their  owners  and  have 
never  been  reclaimed ;  others  have  been  confiscated,  and 
others  sold  at  a  ruinous  sacrifice.  Many  of  the  soldiers 
who  went  South,  who  had  been  raised  among  the  rocky 
hills  of  the  North,  became  in  love  with  the  rich  and  beau 
tiful  fields  and  valleys  of  the  South,  and  thousands  resolved 
to  settle  in  the  new  country.  They  married  Southern 
women,  formed  new  alliances  and  associations,  and  have 
opened  up  a  new  career  for  the  South,  which  is  rapidly 
becoming  more  and  more  salutary  in  its  influences.  The 


LIFE   AMOXG   FARMERS   AXD   PLANTERS.  177 

great  landed  estates  which  have  been  cut  up,  may  be  pur 
chased  by  all  new  comers  at  a  very  small  cost,  while  the 
black  race,  to  a  great  extent,  have  settled  upon  small 
patches  of  land,  where  they  can  maintain  themselves  in 
comfort,  and  enjoy  an  independence  of  thought  and  feeling 
which  they  did  not  know  under  the  old  order  of  things. 
"Whole  plantations  have  been  settled  by  families  of  owners, 
who  were  formerly  slaves  upon  the  same  estates.  Men 
who  were  formerly  overseers  or  superintendents,  are  them 
selves  settling  down  upon  their  own  newly-acquired  farms. 
Although  attempts  to  obtain  laborers  from  China  and 
Sweden  have  been  made,  the  principal  cultivators  of  the 
Southern  States  are  the  Freedmen,  who,  indolent  by  nature, 
do  as  little  work  as  possible,  will  not  hire  out  for  more 
than  a  single  year,  and  one  of  the  results  of  their  freedom 
is,  that  they  will  not  let  their  wives  work,  as  in  the  olden 
times.  To  retain  their  services,  the  planter  is  obliged  to 
praise  and  humor  them  in  many  ways.  The  terms  upon 
which  the  negroes  are  hired  is  generally  to  let  them  have 
one-half  of  what  they  produce,  but  when  supported  by  the 
planter  they  receive  but  one-quarter  of  what  they  produce. 
When  the  planters  are  attentive  to  their  business  they 
almost  invariably  succeed,  and  when  unsuccessful  as  farm 
ers,  they  are  apt  to  help  their  pockets  by  keeping  small 
country  stores ;  and  in  all  the  towns  are  located  men  who 
are  called  warehouse-men,  whose  business  is  to  receive, 
store,  and  sell  all  the  cotton  or  other  produce  which  may 
be  consigned  to  their  care.  \Yhat  the  people  of  the  South 
now  need  is  help — not  lands ;  and  in  many  of  the  most 
fertile  regions,  every  inducement  is  thrown  out  to  invite 

emigration  from  the  North.     But,  after  all,  it  is  idle  to 

8* 


178  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IJSf   AMERICA. 

suppose  that  the  griefs,  the  passions,  and  animosities  en 
gendered  by  the  late  rebellion,  will  die  out  while  the 
present  generation  survives.  Too  many  brave  men  have 
perished,  too  many  homes  made  desolate,  too  many  fami 
lies  broken  up  and  reduced  to  beggary,  to  expect  anything 
of  that  sort.  Men  whom  it  has  impoverished  will  live  and 
die  poor,  remembering  constantly  the  cause  of  their 
poverty.  Widows  will  long  mourn  over  husbands,  chil 
dren  over  fathers,  slain  in  battle.  A  new  and  happier  era 
is  in  store  for  the  rising  generation  ;  but  its  advance  will 
be  slow.  The  people  of  the  North  and  of  the  South,  it  is 
fondly  hoped  and  believed,  will  again  become  a  happy,  a 
united,  and  prosperous  people ;  united  in  interests,  in  pur 
suits,  in  intelligence,  and  in  patriotic  devotion  to  their 
united  country. 

Of  all  the  products  grown  in  the  Southern  States  the 
most  important  and  universal  is  cotton,  and  it  has  been 
asserted  that  it  was  this  single  commodity  which  prevented 
that  portion  of  the  Union  from  relapsing  into  abject 
poverty.  Everything  was  sacrificed  to  slavery,  and 
slavery  sacrificed  everything  to  itself;  and  as  there  were 
not  slaves  enough  to  cultivate  the  soil  as  it  needed,  cotton- 
raising  was  all  that  saved  the  country.  The  principal 
States  where  cotton  is  now  grown  are  Mississippi,  Ala 
bama,  Louisiana,  Georgia,  Texas,  and  Arkansas,  and  in  all 
of  them  efforts  are  being  made  for  the  introduction  of 
Chinese  labor.  The  cultivation  of  rice  is  limited  to  three 
States,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana;  sugar 
cane  and  its  products, — in  the  way  of  sugar  and  molasses, 
— to  Louisiana.  In  Florida  considerable  attention  is  paid 
to  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  other  tropical 


LIFE   AMONG   FARMERS    AND   PLANTERS.  179 

fruits :  wheat  and  tobacco  have  occupied  the  chief  atten 
tion  of  farmers  in  Virginia  and  the  neighboring  States  of 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  :  North  Carolina  has  acquired  a 
reputation  for  its  sweet  potatoes  and  ground-nuts.  Indian 
corn  is  an  important  product  in  all  the  Southern  States ; 
while  the  mountain-lands,  which  in  all  directions  are 
covered  with  grass  as  well  as  extensive  forests,  are  devoted 
to  the  grazing  of  cattle  in  great  numbers,  where  they 
flourish  throughout  the  year  without  shelter  or  any  special 
care.  In  all  the  States  lying  directly  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
the  climate  is  mild,  the  winters  short,  open,  and  delightful, 
and  farm-work  can  be  done  every  month  in  the  year. 
They  begin  there  to  make  their  gardens  in  December,  and 
until  the  following  December  there  is  a  continuous  succes 
sion  of  crops.  The  people  live  easily,  and  produce  more 
for  the  same  amount  of  labor  than  in  any  of  the  Northern 
States.  Lands  are  cheap,  and  may  often  be  paid  for  by  a 
single  crop.  The  timber  is  everywhere  magnificent,  and 
the  lands  are  irrigated  by  numerous  streams,  and  adapted 
to  an  unlimited  variety  of  products.  And  for  the  raising 
of  cattle  there  is  not  a  region,  probably,  in  the  world, 
better  suited  for  that  purpose  than  the  extensive  State  of 
Texas.  In  some  localities,  the  cattle,  may  be  counted  by 
the  thousand,  and  it  is  an  amazing  fact  that  droves  of 
them  are  annually  sent  by  the  stock-raisers  as  far  off  as 
California;  and  Texas  cattle  have  even  been  butchered  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  even  cargoes  of  Texas  beef 
have  been  shipped  in  ice  to  Philadelphia.  From  ten  to 
twelve  men  are  required  for  a  herd  of  a  thousand  cattle, 
with  two  horses  or  mules  to  each  man,  for  day  and  night 
duty;  the  cattle  needing  to  be  herded  at  night  to  prevent 


180  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   1^  AMERICA. 

stampedes.  For  those  who  have  never  witnessed  its 
operations,  it  is  difficult  to  realize  the  extent  of  this  cattle 
traffic,  and  it  is  sometimes  the  case  that  the  whole  earth 
seems  to  be  covered  with  the  herds,  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach  over  the  vast  prairies.  The  class  of  people  com 
monly  known  as  the  "Texas  Cow-boys"  are  indeed  a 
power  in  the  land,  whose  exploits  and  lives  of  adventure 
are  more  like  romance  than  reality.  And  here,  in  passing, 
we  may  with  propriety  devote  a  paragraph  to  the  various 
modes  employed  by  farmers  in  fencing.  In  those  regions 
where .  loose  rocks  are  abundant,  stone  walls  are  almost 
universal:  where  both  stone  and  wood  are  scarce,  they 
have  a  fashion  of  planting  trees  and  shrubbery:  as  a 
matter  of  taste,  wire  fences  are  occasionally  employed.  In 
all  localities  where  wood  is  abundant,  they  make  what  are 
called  post  and  rail,  and  worm  fences.  It  is  said  that  the 
fences  of  New  York  have  cost  $144,000,000,  those  of  Penn 
sylvania  $120,000,000,  Ohio,  $115,000,000,  and  South  Caro 
lina,  $20,000,000,  while  the  fences  of  the  whole  Union  are 
estimated  at  $1,300,000,000.  These  figures  are  enormous, 
but  they  tend  to  exhibit  the  extent  of  the  farming  interests 
of  America. 

Having  now  taken  a  general  survey  of  the  agricultural 
population  of  America,  we  shall  conclude  what  we  have  to 
say.  with  a  few  remarks  on  their  manners  and  customs,  as 
exemplified  by  certain  amusements,  which  are,  for  the  most, 
peculiar  to  this  country.  And  first,  as  to  the  sugar-making 
frolics.  In  various  parts  of  the  Union,  large  quantities  of 
sugar  are  annually  made  from  the  sap  of  the  maple-tree. 
The  moment  Winter  breaks,  and  the  sap  begins  to  ascend  in 
the  Spring,  the  trees  are  tapped,  and  the  liquid  thus  obtain- 


LIFE   AMONG   FARMERS   AND   PLANTERS.  181 

ed  is  boiled  down  until  it  becomes  a  rich  syrup  or  granulat 
ed  sugar.  All  this  takes  place  in  the  dense  woods,  and 
most  of  the  work  is  performed  at  night.  At  the  close  of 
the  season  the  farmers  invite  their  friends  and  neighbors  to 
a  kind  of  jubilee,  which  is  held  in  the  sugar-camps,  and 
where,  with  sumptuous  fare,  followed  by  music  and  danc 
ing,  the  entire  night  is  given  to  enjoyment;  and  when  the 
last  cauldron  of  sugar  has  been  made,  and  daylight  has 
appeared,  the  company  is  dispersed,  and  the  sugar  utensils 
are  packed  away  until  the  coming  of  another  season.  Cor 
responding  to  the  above,  in  most  of  the  corn-growing 
regions  they  have  what  are  called  " Corn- Husking s"  This 
entertainment  occurs  when  a  farmer  is  anxious  to  prepare 
for  market  an  unusual  quantity  of  the  yellow  maize  ;  and 
in  the  North  or  West,  when  the  young  men  and  country 
lasses  have  met,  they  are  piloted  to  the  spacious  and  sweet- 
smelling  barn,  and  for  a  stated  time  all  work  without  ceas 
ing,  until  the  allotted  task  is  performed ;  an  adjournment 
then  takes  place  to  the  farm-house,  where  feasting  and 
dancing  continue  all  the  night  long.  When  this  frolic  oc 
curs  in  the  South,  the  colored  people  there  do  the  work, 
and  enjoy  themselves  in  their  own  rude  but  amusing  ways, 
while  the  white  people  for  whom  they  may  happen  to  be 
working,  act  as  the  hosts,  content  to  enjoy  the  laughable 
scenes  brought  to  view.  In  the  New  England  States,  es 
pecially  those  regions  bordering  on  the  sea,  they  have  what 
are  called  "  Clam-Bakes"  These  are  usually  attended  by 
men  only,  who  congregate  from  various  quarters,  for  the 
purpose  of  exchanging  political  opinions,  and  having  a 
systematic  good  time;  when  speeches  are  delivered,  and 
large  quantities  of  cheering  beverages  are  imbibed,  as  well 


182  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IK   AMERICA. 

as  clams  eaten,  after  a  primitive  fashion.  The  shell-fish  are 
roasted  in  an  open  field,  and  duly  prepared  with  the  desired 
condiments.  These  affairs  take  place  in  the  summer,  after 
the  leading  harvests  have  been  gathered  in.  In  the 
Southern  States  certain  festivals  are  common,  but  more  so 
before  the  late  war  than  now,  which  are  known  as  "Barbe 
cues."  They  are  political,  and  sometimes  bring  together 
very  large  numbers  of  the  planters  and  their  families,  and 
the  time  is  generally  devoted  to  speech-making,  happily 
varied  by  eating  and  drinking  the  good  things  of  the  land. 
The  principal  food  on  these  occasions  consists  of  beef  or 
mutton,  and  the  oxen  or  sheep  are  roasted  entire,  over  a 
pit  duly  prepared,  and  filled  with  burning  coals.  The 
cooks  and  caterers  are  generally  negro  men  and  women, 
and,  as  they  have  the  privilege  of  inviting  their  own  friends, 
the  groves  where  they  assemble  present  a  varied  and  fan 
tastic  scene.  The  young  people  have  it  all  their  own  way, 
and  there  is  no  end  to  the  variety  of  their  amusements. 
Another  rural  custom  is  known  as  a  " House- Raising" 
This  occurs  after  some  farmer  has  prepared  his  timber  for 
a  new  house  or  barn,  when  he  invites  his  friends  and 
neighbors  to  come  and  help  him  to  lift  the  timbers  and  cross- 
pieces  into  their  proper  places.  This  invitation  is  always 
cheerfully  accepted,  and  most  of  the  time  is  devoted  to 
downright  hard  work.  But  after  the  task  has  been  accom 
plished,  the  men  have  a  substantial  feast,  and  a  good  long 
talk  about  their  farms,  their  crops,  and  cattle,  and  commonly 
separate  with  a  warm  brotherly  feeling  for  each  other,  and 
for  their  fellow-men  everywhere.  In  some  of  the  fruit-grow 
ing  regions,  large  quantities  of  apples  are  stripped  of  their 
skins,  cut  into  quarter  pieces,  and  hung  up  to  dry  for  win- 


LIFE   AMOXG    FARMERS   AXD   PLANTERS.  183 

tcr  use,  and  in  that  condition  become  a  source  of  revenue. 
Out  of  this  variety  of  business  has  grown  an  autumnal 
festival  called  an  "  Apple-Paring."  This  takes  place  in 
the  evening  :  the  guests  are  invited  as  to  an  ordinary  party, 
and  after  a  few  hours'  attention  to  business,  the  night  is 
given  up  to  feasting  and  dancing,  or  the  playing  of  inno 
cent  games  by  the  young  people,  who  compose  the  majority. 
Ball-playing  and  Sleigh-riding  are  two  other  pastimes  in 
which  the  Americans  indulge  with  rare  gusto.  By  the  rural 
population  Saturday  afternoon  is  usually  assigned  to  the 
former,  on  which  occasions  the  young  men  are  as  active  and 
expert  in  throwing  and  catching,  or  striking  the  ball,  as  if 
they  had  been  idle  all  the  previous  week,  instead  of  having 
had  to  work  in  the  fields  with  the  utmost  energy.  Sleigh- 
riding,  of  course,  takes  place  in  the  winter  only,  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  and  then  it  is  that  the  young 
farmers  bring  out  their  best  horses,  fill  their  sleighs  with 
lady  friends,  enveloped  in  gayly  trimmed  furs,  and,  to  the 
exhilarating  music  of  the  bells,  start  off  on  all  sorts  of  ex 
peditions  over  the  neighboring  country.  From  time  im 
memorial  it  has  been  the  custom  among  the  negroes  of  the 
South  to  devote  the  last  week  of  the  year,  commonly 
called  Christmas  Holidays^  to  every  variety  of  amusement. 
When  slavery  existed,  those  prolonged  festivities  were 
freely  accorded  to  the  slaves,  and  were  full  of  romantic 
interest ;  but  now  that  they  are  free,  the  colored  people 
claim  their  old  privilege  as  a  right,  but  do  not  find  the 
same  unalloyed  enjoyment  as  of  old  in  their  annual  frolic. 
They  have  not  as  yet  arrived  at  that  stage  when  they  can 
enjoy  the  blessing  of  supporting  themselves.  About  the 
close  of  the  year  they  have  in  various  parts  of  the  country 


184  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

what  they  call  "  Shooting  Matches"  These  are  of  two 
kinds,  one,  where  turkeys  and  other  birds  are  tied  to  a  stake, 
and  made  a  target  for  men  who  like  to  shoot  the  rifle,  and 
experienced  shots  sometimes  wrin  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
large  poultry  to  supply  all  their  friends.  Another  kind  of 
match  is,  when  two  parties  pit  themselves  against  each 
other,  and  go  upon  a  hunt  for  a  day  or  a  wreek,  for  squirrels 
or  birds  of  game,  when  the  victors  are  rewarded  with  a 
prize  of  some  kind,  paid  for  by  the  losing  party.  And  then 
they  have  throughout  the  country  such  rural  jollifications 
as  Sheep- Shearing,  Ploughing  Matches,  and,  to  the  discredit 
of  the  participants,  Cock-Fightings,  which  need  not  be 
described.  But  of  all  rural  assemblages  none  are  so  gener 
ally  popular  as  country  Fairs.  They  occur  in  the  Autumn 
in  numerous  localities,  and  bring  together  thousands  of  the 
agricultural  population.  The  first  agricultural  Fair  ever 
organized  in  this  country  by  any  of  the  colored  population, 
was  recently  carried  through  with  success  in  the  State  of 
Kentucky.  Farm  products,  animals,  and  country  fabrics 
are  exhibited  to  a  marvellous  extent,  in  many  of  these  Fairs. 
All  sorts  of  friendly  competitions  are  entered  into,  and 
Horse-racing  has  become  an  important  adjunct  to  all  these 
Fairs,  whether  patronized  by  the  State  at  large  or  confined 
to  the  counties  where  they  are  held.  But  the  crowning 
custom,  and  the  one  most  universally  recognized  by  the 
American  people,  is  the  celebration  of  what  is  known  as 
Thanksgiving  Day.  It  is  an  annual  festival,  honored  by 
proclamations  from  the  President  and  the  local  Governors, 
who  specify  the  particular  day  ;  and  of  all  places  to  enjoy 
it,  none  can  be  compared  to  the  house  of  a  successful  far 
mer.  The  primary  object  of  this  festival  is  to  recognize 


LIFE    AMONG    FARMERS    AND    PLANTERS.  185 

the  o-oodness  of  the  Almighty  in  crowning  the  labors  of 
the  field  with  prosperity,  and  the  occasion  is  made  especially 
joyous  by  the  gathering  together,  under  one  roof,  all  the 
scattered  members  of  the  family  in  the  old  home.  There 
are  some  other  rural  customs  which  might  be  mentioned 
in  this  place,  but  as  they  are  of  a  religious  character  we 
shall  defer  them  for  a  subsequent  chapter  of  this  volume. 


COMMEECIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOP 
MENTS. 


THE   inland   and    coast-line  navigation   of   the    United 

O 

States  is  not  surpassed,  in  extent  and  character,  by  any 
country  on  the  globe ;  and  the  industry  and  enterprise  of 
the  Americans,  in  developing  their  commercial  and  ship 
ping  interests,  has  been,  until  within  the  last  few  years, 
equal  to  their  superior  advantages.  Passing  by  all  statis 
tics  in  regard  to  the  tonnage  of  the  country,  let  us  take  a 
brief  survey  of  the  vessels  arid  navigators  which  have 
given  the  country  its  reputation.  By  far  the  largest  pro 
portion  of  American  vessels  are  run  upon  inland  waters, 
and  are  called  small  craft ;  but  the  sea-going  vessels,  if  less 
numerous,  are  generally  as  large  as  those  of  any  other 
nation,  and  have  been  constructed  on  unsurpassed  models. 
The  ships  called  "Liners,"  which,  a  few  years  ago,  ran 
between  New  York  and  Liverpool,  acquired  wide  celebrity, 
and  have  never  been  surpassed  for  beauty  and  speed.  But 
they  have  been  superseded  by  steamers,  and  ships  of  that 
class  now  transact  the  same  business.  The  burthen  of 
those  sailing-vessels  was  about  two  thousand  tons ;  they 
were  splendidly  equipped,  swift,  were  commanded  and 
manned  by  the  best  metal,  and  did  an  immense  business 
in  bringing  merchandise  and  immigrants  to  America.  But, 
with  the  calamities  that  have  befallen  the  mercantile 
marine  of  this  country,  they  have  nearly  all  passed  away. 


COMMERCIAL    LIFE    AXD    DEVELOPMENTS.  187 

Daring  the  fiscal  year  of  1870,  there  were  less  than  one 
hundred  thousand  tons  of  sea-going  vessels  built  in  the 
United  States,  and  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  tons 
of  all  descriptions  of  vessels,  which  amount  was  about 
equalled  by  the  vessels  built  on  the  Clyde  alone,  while  the 
tonnage  of  steam-vessels,  built  all  in  England,  was  sixty 
times  greater  than  that  of  America.  One  I'esult  of  this 
falling  off  in  American  ship-building  has  been  that  large 
numbers  of  men,  who  were  brought  up  on  the  ocean,  are 
seen  turning  their  attention  to  a  variety  of  pursuits  con 
nected  wholly  with  the  land.  The  inland  waters  of  the 
country  are  most  abundantly  supplied  with  steamboats, 
and  all  the  varieties  of  the  smaller  sailing-vessels;  the 
coasting  trade  and  fishing  interests  are  quite  as  important 
and  extensive  as  heretofore,  but  new  vessels  are  by  no 
means  now  turned  out  with  the  rapidity  that  they  were  a 
few  years  ago.  It  was  the  late  war,  also,  which  helped  to 
put  back  the  carrying  trade  of  America,  but  with  the  re 
turn  of  peace  and  the  final  restoration  of  the  Union,  the 
old  order  of  things  began  to  be  restored.  When  the  great 
rebellion,  or  rather  the  British  cruisers  sailing  under  its 
flag,  drove  American  shipping  from  the  seas,  and  thus 
transferred  the  carrying  trade  to  foreign  bottoms,  the  com 
merce  of  Philadelphia  suffered  in  common  with  that  of 
other  cities.  The  substitution  of  iron  for  wood,  at  about 
the  same  time,  as  the  material  for  first-class  steamships, 
left  the  country  not  only  without  ships,  but  behind  other 
nations  in  facilities  for  making  them.  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Baltimore  soon  recovered  in  good  part  their  former 
commerce,  through  the  help  of  foreign  subsidized  steam 
ship  lines.  But  Philadelphia,  more  thoroughly  imbued 


188  LIFE   AXD    RESOURCES    IX   AMERICA. 

with  American  ideas,  made  little  effort  to  secure  such  for 
eign  lines,  but  waited  to  build  a  line  of  her  own,  which 
will  soon  be  established  between  that  city  and  Liverpool. 
In  1 860  the  tonnage  of  the  United  States  amounted  to 
5,353,86S  tons,  and  in  1870,  to  4,246,507  tons.  Notwith 
standing  the  above  facts,  however,  the  commerce  of  the 
country  is  very  large  and  flourishing,  since  it  appears  that 
the  American  imports  for  1870  amounted  to  about 
$600,000,000,  and  the  exports  about  $400,000,000.  The 
great  variety  of  native  productions  exported  from  Amer 
ica  gives  assurance  of  the  impossibility  of  failure  in 
the  resources  of  the  nation.  For  example,  from  the 
sea,  they  have  such  products  as  oil,  whalebone,  sperm 
aceti,  and  many  kinds,  in  great  abundance,  of  fish ;  from 
the  forest,  timber,  shingles,  staves,  lumber,  naval  stores, 
and  furs;  from  agriculture,  every  description  of  corn 
and  vegetable  food,  and  the  products  of  animals,  in  the 
way  of  beef,  pork,  tallow,  hides,  bacon,  cheese,  butter, 
wool,  lard,  and  hams,  with  horned  cattle,  horses,  and 
other  animals.  From  the  Southern  States  they  have  cot 
ton,  tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar;  from  the  factories,  every 
variety  of  useful  goods ;  while  their  exports  of  specie  and 
bullion  have  never  been  exceeded  by  any  other  nation. 
And  as  to  their  imports,  they  are  simply  enormous — silks, 
woolen  goods,  tea,  coffee,  and  sugars  being  the  most  im 
portant,  and  for  which  there  has  always  been  a  demand. 
But  the  crowning  element  of  American  commerce  is  its  in 
ternal  trade ;  and  in  this  connection  we  cannot,  perhaps, 
mention  a  more  remarkable  fact  than  this,  that  the  produc 
tion  of  spirituous  liquors  in  1870  amounted  to  $600,000,000 
— the  persons  engaged  in  selling  it  by  retail,  numbering 


COMMERCIAL    LIFE    AXD   DEVELOPMENTS.  189 

not  less  than  150,000;  while  the  importation  of  opium, 
from  China,  amounted  to  nearly  $2,000,000.  The  dis 
tances  in  America  are  so  great,  that  the  internal  trade 
and  traffic  of  the  country  has  been,  and  must  always 
be,  a  business  of  vast  importance.  And  the  extent  of 
territory  implies  great  diversity  of  productions.  The 
growths  of  tropical  regions  are  exchanged  for  the  field- 
crops  and  forest  produce  of  cooler  latitudes;  and  in  another 
direction,  the  products  of  the  coast  and  of  extensive  interior 
districts  are  exchanged.  The  tide  of  emigration  sets  from, 
east  to  west,  while  the  tide  of  commerce  flows  from  wTest  to 
east ;  and  we  can  only  obtain  an  adequate  idea  of  the  in 
land  commerce,  by  considering  the  enormous  extent  of  the 
inland  shipping  and  the  railway  facilities  of  the  country. 

But  it  is  with  the  social  aspect  of  American  commerce 
that  WTC  have  to  do  at  the  present  time.  The  grand  busi 
ness  centre  of  the  nation  is  New  York  City.  Having  direct 
and  constant  intercourse  with  all  parts  of  the  world,  the 
nationality  of  its  merchants  is  as  varied  as  the  countries 
which  they  represent.  Of  the  native-born  merchants  the 
most  numerous  and  successful  originated  in  the  New  En 
gland  States,  and  are  distinguished  for  their  intelligence, 
ability,  and  elevated  personal  characteristics.  They  live 
in  elegant  houses,  and,  while  surrounded  by  all  the  appli 
ances  of  prosperity  and  wealth,  are  not  prone  to  making  a 
greater  display  than  their  less  fortunate  neighbors;  they 
are  plain  in  their  manners,  and  hospitable  ;  and  if  many  of 
them  happen  to  indulge  in  keeping  up  fancy  residences  in 
the  country,  the  largest  proportion  are  quite  content  to 
spend  their  summer  vacations  by  the  sea-side,  or  among 
the  green  hills  of  their  native  States.  They  devote  them- 


190  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

selves  to  business  with  ceaseless  activity,  and  are  the  men 
who  generally  take  pleasure  in  expending  their  surplus 
capital  upon  all  sorts  of  benevolent,  religious,  and  educa 
tional  institutions.  A  type  of  merchants,  allied  to  these,  is 
also  found  in  all  the  other  cities  of  the  country.  Next  to 
them  come  the  English,  French,  and  German  merchants, 
who  generally  deal  in  the  kind  of  merchandise  sent  out 
from  their  several  countries.  In  their  modes  of  transacting 
business,  and  of  living,  they  adhere  as  closely  as  possible 
to  the  customs  of  their  native  lands,  but  with  many  modi 
fications.  The  particular  men  who  laid  the  commercial 
foundation  of  New  York  were  from  Holland,  but  their 
characteristics  have  been  amalgamated  with  those  of  the 
various  nationalities  which  have,  latterly,  made  that  city 
the  most  cosmopolitan  in  the  country.  While  a  very  large 
trade  is  carried  on  between  New  York  and  the  Oriental 
nations,  the  merchants  of  Boston  have  long  considered 
themselves  the  special  patrons  and  friends  of  the  far  East, 
and  that  city  has  always  been  a  noted  mart  for  the  com 
modities  of  India,  China,  and  Japan,  in  which  particular  it 
is  now  finding  a  rival  in  San  Francisco.  Its  coasting  trade 
is  also  very  extensive,  and  it  is  the  port  whence  various 
manufactures  are  shipped  in  immense  quantities.  The 
whaling  business,  which  was  formerly  divided  between 
several  cities,  is  now  almost  entirely  confined  to  New  Bed 
ford  ;  the  merchants  of  which  city,  like  those  of  Boston, 
are  proud  of  their  descent  from  what  is  called  the  Puritan 
stock.  In  Philadelphia,  where  the  coasting  trade  is  almost 
unparalleled,  they  have  what  is  called  a  Quaker  element 
of  population,  which  has  always  been  noted  for  its  integrity 
in  matters  of  business ;  but  this  city  is  now  vying  with 


COMMERCIAL   LIFE    AND    DEVELOPMENTS.  191 

New  York  in  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  its  merchants, 
— and  in  the  person  of  Stephen  Girard  produced  one  of  the 
wealthiest  and  most  eminent  merchants  in  America.  With 
regard  to  Baltimore  and  Charleston,  Mobile  and  New 
Orleans, — all  these  places  are  the  natural  outlets  of  the 
entire  Southern  half  of  the  United  States,  and  in  all  of  them 
may  be  found  an  abundant  supply  of  merchants  from  the 
four  quarters  of  the  globe.  And  corresponding  with  the 
cities  just  named,  there  are,  throughout  the  interior  of  the 
country,  very  many  cities  which  have  grown  into  centres 
of  trade  and  commerce  with  marvellous  rapidity ;  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  Chicago  (whose  merchants  are 
now  building  up  a  large  tea-trade  with  China,  by  way  of 
San  Francisco),  Detroit,  Cleveland,  St.  Louis,  and  Cincin 
nati,  Louisville,  Buffalo,  and  Pittsburg,  in  all  of  which  may 
be  found  the  principal  nationalities  of  the  globe.  Looking 
at  the  commercial  classes,  in  the  aggregate,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  give  prominence  to  any  nationality  ;  and  it 
would  seem  as  if,  after  a  brief  residence  in  America,  the 
whole  mercantile  population,  with  one  exception,  becomes 
permeated  with  the  characteristics  of  the  native-born  in 
habitants.  The  exception  alluded  to  is  the  Jewish  race. 
They  are  found  in  every  city,  and  almost  in  every  hamlet 
— always  engaged  in  bartering  and  selling,  and  never  in 
producing,  and  they  are  pre-eminently  a  wandering  people. 
With  them,  the  one  great  end  of  life  would  seem  to  be  to 
make  money,  but  where  they  settle  down  to  enjoy  it  has 
always  been  a  mystery. 

In  America,  as  elsewhere,  permanent  success  in  business 
is  chiefly  dependent  upon  character;  honest  and  upright 
men  are  sure  to  command  the  respect  of  their  neighbors, 


193  LIFE    AXD    RESOURCES    IX   AMERICA. 

and  when  unfortunate,  always  find  their  fellow-merchants 
ready  to  assist  them;  and  when  men  of  bad  repute  happen 
to  make  fortunes,  they  generally  find  it  convenient  to  set 
tle  down  among  strangers,  to  enjoy  their  ill-gotten  gains. 
One  of  the  effects  of  the  late  war  in  this  country  was  to 
enrich  a  large  number  of  adventurers  and  unscrupulous  men, 
who  made  money  by  imposing  upon  the  General  Govern 
ment,  through  political  intrigues ;  and  it  was  because  of 
their  foolishness  in  spending  their  money  and  putting  on 
airs  to  which  they  were  not  accustomed,  that  they  came  to 
be  known  by  the  opprobrious  title  of  shoddy,  in  remem 
brance  of  a  spurious  cloth  which  some  of  them  palmed  off  for 
the  use  of  the  army.  But  the  average  American  merchant 
of  to-day  is  a  man  who  deserves  and  receives  universal  res 
pect.  He  is  intelligent,  but  not  addicted  to  the  profits 
and  pleasures  of  literature.  Engaged  all  day  in  the  ex 
citement  of  commercial  speculation,  he  has  but  little  time 
to  devote  to  reading,  and  improving  his  mind.  He  works 
so  hard  and  so  constantly,  that  work  becomes  a  second 
nature  to  him,  prostrating  his  energies  and  making  him 
indifferent  to  proper  recreations ;  he  considers  his  word  as 
good  as  his  bond,  and,  to  protect  his  credit,  will  make  the 
greatest  sacrifice  of  property ;  he  is  liberal  in  his  feelings, 
and  gives  freely  to  all  objects  which  have  the  sanction  of 
his  good  opinion  ;  he  is  hospitable,  but  would  prefer  to 
have  his  \vife  and  daughters  attend  to  the  honors  of  his 
house  and  table  ;  and  when  overcome  by  reverses,  he  takes 
a  new  start,  changes  the  character  of  his  business,  perhaps, 
and  will  not  acknowledge  himself  as  overwhelmed,  and 
proves  his  mettle  by  attaining  final  success. .  Perhaps  there 
is  no  feature  in  the  character  of  the  Americans  which  is  so 


COMMEKCIAL  LIFE  AKD  DEVELOPMENTS.  193 

remarkable  as  their  spirit  of  enterprise.  It  is  indeed  won 
derful,  and  is  the  cause  of  their  success.  But  it  does  not 
follow  that  this  enterprise  is  all  native-born ;  a  portion 
of  it  is  undoubtedly  brought  into  the  country  by  intelligent 
men  from  the  leading  countries  of  Europe. 

But  let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  some  of  the  phases  of 
their  commercial  life,  or  rather,  at  the  classes  of  men  who 
transact  the  mercantile  business  of  the  country;  and  first, 
as  to  the  shipping  merchants.  To  carry  on  their  business 
a  large  capital  is  required,  and  as  individuals  or  organized 
companies,  they  are  generally  the  leading  patrons  of  the 
great  ship-yards.  They  have  vessels  built  to  order,  and 
also  buy  them  in  open  market;  they  establish  lines  of  com 
munication  between  home  ports,  by  way  of  lakes  and 
rivers,  and  between  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries  ; 
and  they  are  the  men  who  so  frequently  obtain  valuable 
contracts  from  the  Government  for  carrying  the  mails,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Pacific  Steamship  Company,  which  receives 
not  less  than  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  conveying  a 
semi-monthly  mail  from  San  Francisco  to  China  and  Japan. 
One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  men  is  named  Cornelius 
Vanderbilt.  Another  class  of  shipping  merchants  are  those 
who  simply  direct  or  superintend  the  business  for  other  par 
ties.  They  are  indeed  what  might  be  called,  more  properly, 
brokers.  The  wealthiest  man  who  ever  lived  in  the  coun 
try,  John  Jacob  Astor,  and  who  left  about  $25,000,000,  was 
at  one  time  engaged  in  the  shipping  business,  and  made  a 
great  deal  of  money  by  sending  his  ships  to  China;  but 
he  was  pre-eminently  a  trader  in  furs.*  Then  come  the 

*  Since  this  was  printed  it  lias  .been  stated  that  W.  B.  Astor,  A..  T. 
Stewart,  and  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  are  each  worth  sixty  millions  of 
dollars.  9 


194  LIFE  AND   EESOUKCES   IN  AMEKICA. 

importing  merchants.  They  have  their  agents  located  in 
foreign  countries,  purchase  and  sell  their  merchandise  only 
in  the  bulk,  and  are  the  men  who  give  the  greatest  impe 
tus  to  the  home  trade.  Some  merchants  of  this  class,  en 
gaged  in  trade  with  the  Oriental  nations,  have  followed  the 
same  business  for  nearly  a  century  ;  many  of  them,  located 
in  New  York  and  Boston,  have  acquired  immense  fortunes, 
and  it  was  the  son  of  one  of  these,  James  Lenox,  who  lately 
made  a  donation  of  a  million  of  dollars  for  the  establishment 
of  a  Library  and  Gallery  of  Art  in  New  York.  With  some 
few  of  these  importers  the  custom  prevails  of  selling  their 
goods  by  auction,  soon  after  their  arrival ;  and  in  this  man 
ner  whole  cargoes  of  tea  from  China  or  sugar  from  the 
West  Indies  were  sold  within  the  space  of  half  an  hour. 
But  this  business  has  well-nigh  been  absorbed  by  the  class 
known  as  brokers.  Another  important  class  of  merchants 
are  the  wholesale  dealers  or  jobbers.  They  receive  their 
goods  in  the  bulk  from  the  importers,  and  sell  them  by  the 
piece  or  in  broken  packages.  They  sell  on  credit,  and  usu 
ally  confine  themselves  to  a  particular  class,  or  a  few  classes 
of  goods.  One  house,  for  example,  will  sell  only  silk  goods  ; 
another,  all  sorts  of  cotton  fabrics  ;  another,  the  several 
varieties  of  woolen  goods ;  another,  hardware  ;  and  others, 
wooden  or  fancy  goods  and  groceries  of  every  description. 
And  then  there  are  what  are  called  the  retail  merchants. 
They  constitute  the  most  numerous  class,  and  are  to  be 
found  in  every  city  and  village  of  the  land.  In  the  larger 
towns  there  is  no  mingling  of  drygoods  and  groceries,  but, 
in  the  hamlets,  the  merchants  find  it  necessary  and  to  their 
advantage  to  keep  for  sale  everything  that  the  people  can 
possibly  require — from  a  yard  of  calico  or  a  piece  of  ribbon, 


COMMERCIAL   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS.  195 

a  paper  of  buttons  or  needles,  to  a  pound  of  tea  or  coffee,  or 
sugar  or  shot,  or  a  cake  of  soap.  It  is  sometimes  the  case, 
however,  that  the  importing,  jobbing,  and  retail  trades  are 
carried  on  by  the  same  firm,  and  there  is  one  man  located 
in  New  York  City,  Alexander  T.  Stewart,  who  is  reputed 
to  be  the  wealthiest  and  most  influential  merchant  of  this 
sort,  in  the  world.  His  establishments  are  on  the  most  stu 
pendous  scale ;  he  employs  agents  and  clerks  by  the  hun 
dred;  and  his  passion  for  business  is  so  strong  that  he  is 
among  the  first,  as  well  as  the  last,  in  his  daily  attendance 
at  his  enormous  warehouses.  This  man  began  his  career  a 
poor  and  friendless  boy,  and,  besides  building  a  palace  for 
himself,  giving  a  way  millions  for  the  comfort  of  the  poor,  he 
is  now  engaged,  at  an  immense  outlay,  in  founding  a  model 
town  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York.  The  commission  mer 
chants  form  another  very  extensive  class  of  the  business 
men.  To  carry  on  their  business,  less  capital  is  required 
than  for  those  already  named,  but  it  is  important  that  their 
credit  should  be  unimpeachable.  They  receive  goods  or 
produce  from  the  manufacturers,  or  farmers,  and  sell  them 
to  the  best  advantage,  receiving  for  themselves  merely  a 
certain  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  sales,  in  the  way  of  com 
mission,  for  trouble  and  expenses.  With  regard  to  the  sub 
ordinates,  who  are  employed  by  the  more  important  mer 
chants,  they  consist  of  drummers,  who  devote  their  time  to 
hunting  up  customers  ;  of  clerks,  who  sell  goods  and  keep 
the  books  ;  of  porters,  who  pack  the  goods  and  do  the  man 
ual  labor;  and  of  draymen,  who  carry  the  merchandise  to 
the  vessels,  of  every  description,  and  to  the  railway  stations. 
But  there  are  certain  other  classes  of  business  men  in  all  the 
commercial  marts,  whose  duties  are  important  and  whose 


196  LIFE   AKD   KESOUKCES   IX   AMERICA. 

influence  is  extensive.  First  among  these  are  the  auction 
eers,  who  sell  to  the  highest  bidders,  real  estate,  furniture, 
books,  works  of  art,  and  everything,  in  fact,  which  the  own 
ers  desire  to  turn  rapidly  into  money ;  then  come  the 
brokers,  who  usually  devote  themselves  to  one  commod 
ity,  such  as  cotton  or  money,  tea  and  coifee,  sugar  or 
grain,  who  have  come  to  be  a  numerous  and  useful 
class,  and  who  sell  only  by  samples,  receiving  their 
pay  like  the  commission  merchants.  They  transact 
the  business  which  was  formerly  performed  by  one  class 
of  auctioneers.  The  class  of  men  known  as  bankers  are 
those  who  conduct  the  moneyed  institutions  of  the  country, 
albeit  large  numbers  follow  the  business  on  private  account, 
many  of  whom,  in  all  the  leading  cities,  have  acquired 
immense  fortunes.  Of  these,  perhaps  the  most  successful 
and  celebrated  is  now  a  retired  citizen  of  Washington,  and 
who,  within  the  last  few  years,  has  given  away  for  pur 
poses  of  charity  and  culture  many  millions  of  dollars. 
And  still  another  class  of  the  business  men  who  are  very 
numerous  and  constantly  increasing,  are  known  as  In 
surance  men.  They  are  the  managers  of  extensive  cor 
porations,  who  insure,  in  stated  sums  of  money,  all  kinds 
of  property  from  fire  and  marine  disasters,  as  well  as  the 
lives  of  men  who  desire  to  secure  a  competence  for  their 
families  in  the  event  of  death.  From  the  foregoing  state 
ments  it  will  be  seen  that  the  machinery  of  commerce  in 
this  country  is  fully  organized  and  very  complete. 

But,  fully  to  comprehend  the  extent  and  range  of  the 
commercial  interests,  we  must  now  turn  our  attention  to 
the  system  of  railways,  as  it  exists  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  a  subject  which  increases  in  interest  and  importance 


COMMERCIAL   LIFE    AND    DEVELOPMENTS.  197 

every  year.  In  1860  this  system  had  already  reached  a 
development  which  was  justly  regarded  as  amazing.  It 
was  the  product  of  but  a  short  time ;  every  mile  of  road 
had  been  built  within  the  recollection  of  men  who  had  not 
yet  passed  middle  life,  and  three-fourths  of  it  all  within  ten 
years.  Yet  there  were  in  operation  more  than  thirty-one 
thousand  miles  of  road,  which,  with  their  equipment,  had 
absorbed  of  the  capital  of  the  country  not  less  than  twelve 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars,  or  ten  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  assessed  value  of  property  in  the  United  States. 
There  were  men,  however,  who  protested  that  this  interest 
had  outgrown  the  needs  of  the  country,  and  was  the  result 
of  speculative  and  artificial  influences ;  that  it  diverted 
capital  from  more  useful  employments,  and  tended  to 
retard  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  Nor  have  these  men 
changed  their  opinion.  But  what  a  change  has  taken 
place  in  this  business  !  From  the  official  reports  we  learn 
that  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  year  there  were 
railroad  lines  in  operation  to  the  extent  of  more  than  fifty- 
three  thousand  miles,  which,  with  their  equipment,  cost 
nearly  twenty-seven  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  or  twenty- 
two  per  cent,  of  the  entire  assessed  value  of  property  in 
the  country.  Of  these  more  than  eleven  thousand  miles 
have  been  built  within  two  years,  and  at  an  expenditure  of 
four  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  In  other  words,  the 
people  of  America  have  contributed  during  the  last  ten 
years  more  than  half  as  much  to  build  railroads  as  they 
have  paid  in  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  Government,  includ 
ing  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  are  now  contributing  yearly 
for  the  same  purpose  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  whole 
revenue  of  the  national  treasury.  The  total  earnings  of 


198  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   IJsT   AMERICA. 

these  railroads  in  1870  were  four  hundred  and  fifty 
millions  of  dollars ;  and  the  gross  tonnage  transported 
equalled  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions  of  tons, 
having  a  value  of  more  than  ten  thousand  millions  of 
dollars. 

Prior  to  the  late  war,  the  American  railroads  were 
regarded  almost  exclusively  in  their  relations  to  trade,  and 
the  comprehensive  study  of  them  was  the  concern  only  of 
the  economist.  But  they  have  now  become  the  centres  of 
many  forms  of  power  in  the  hands  of  corporations  whose 
management  is  concentrated,  secret,  and  largely  irrespon 
sible  ;  they  hold  vast  accumulations  of  wealth ;  employ  a 
large  proportion  of  the  scientific  and  practical  ability  of  the 
nation ;  they  exert  an  immense  influence  on  all  the  markets, 
and  on  the  social  and  material  welfare  of  the  whole  people. 
They  are  also  the  favorite  instruments  of  speculation,  and 
sources  of  sudden  profit :  they  wield  political  agencies  and 
parties,  in  many  places,  and  even  dictate  to  the  State 
Legislatures.  They  thus  connect  themselves  with  society, 
in  so  many  relations,  that  their  growth  and  influence  are 
becoming  an  anxious  study,  not  only  for  the  economist  and 
the  trader,  but  for  the  politician,  the  statesman,  and  the 
moralist.  Hitherto,  a  large  part  of  the  capital  thus  con 
sumed  has  been  borrowed  from  foreign  nations,  and  the 
want  is  not  felt  in  the  United  States.  But  it  makes 
part  of  the  debt  on  which  the  productive  industry  of  the 
country  must  pay  the  interest.  The  subject,  as  it  has 
been  well  said,  thus  presents  important  and  difficult  ques 
tions  for  discussion.  But  all  men  must  acknowledge  that 
the  rapid  progress  of  this  enormous  interest  is  as  wonderful 
as  its  present  magnitude;  and  it  is  plain  that  of  the  ultimate 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND   DEVELOPMENTS.  199 

extent  to  which  the  construction  of  railroads  in  America 
will  be  carried,  no  estimate  can  be  formed. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  we  must  submit  a  few  addi 
tional  particulars.  The  average  rate  of  speed,  with  the 
passenger-trains,  in  America,  is  thirty  miles  per  hour,  and 
the  number  of  cars  in  each  train  varies  from  five  to  fifteen  ; 
while  the  freight-trains  frequently  number  not  less  than 
one  hundred  cars.  The  locomotives  are  far  more  powerful 
and  much  larger  than  those  on  English  roads,  and  wood  is' 
the  common  fuel.  In  front  of  the  engine  is  generally 
placed  a  massive  iron  grating,  called  a  "  cow-catcher,"  in 
tended  to.  throw  off  any  animal  that  may  be  upon  the 
track ;  and  in  winter  they  are  supplied  with  immense 
plows  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  through  the  banks  of 
snow.  They  are  supplied  with  bells  as  well  as  steam- 
whistles,  to  be  sounded  when  starting,  or  used  to  give 
note  of  coming  danger.  They  are  generally  managed  by 
three  men,  one  engineer  and  his  assistant,  and  one  fire 
man.  The  passenger-cars  are  large,  and  have  from  eight 
to  sixteen  wheels ;  some  of  them  plain  and  open  to  all, 
and  others,  called  palace  cars,  are  very  elegantly  fitted  up, 
and  occupied  only  by  those  persons  who  are  willing  to  pay 
an  extra  fare.  On  all  the  trains  are  also  to  be  found  such 
conveniences  as  "sleeping"  and  "  smoking  cars."  The 
men  who  manage  the  trains  while  running,  are  the  "  con 
ductors,"  who  collect  the  tickets ;  at  the  end  of  each  car  is 
stationed  a  brakeman,  wrho  helps  to  regulate  the  speed ; 
there  are  also  baggage-men ;  while  boys  with  books  or 
papers,  or  fruit,  are  permitted  to  pass  through  the  trains ; 
and  upon  those  which  carry  the  United  States  mail,  there 
is  always  an  officer  of  the  General  Post-Office  Department. 


200  LIFE   AXD   BESOTJBCES   II*  AMERICA. 

Tickets  are  purchased  before  entering  the  cars,  and  for 
every  piece  of  baggage  a  metal  check  is  given,  so  that  a 
man  may  travel  a  thousand  miles  or  more  without  casting 
a  thought  upon  his  baggage.  The  rails  are  made  of  iron 
and  steel,  and  single  or  double  tracks  are  in  vogue  ac 
cording  to  the  necessities  of  the  route;  and  the  longest 
continuous  line  of  railway  in  America,  running  from  New 
York  City  to  San  Francisco,  is  3,200  miles. 

As  the  primary  object  of  commerce  is  to  accumulate 
money,  it  is  proper  that  we  should  conclude  this  paper 
with  a  general  survey  of  the  finances  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  people  to  whom  their  management  is  intrusted. 
At  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal  year,  the  debt  of  the  United 
States  amounted  to  $2,480,672,427;  the  reduction,  since 
1866,  when  it  reached  the  highest  amount,  having  been 
$292,563,746.  The  total  receipts  of  the  Government  were 
$566,935,818,  while  the  expenditures  amounted  to  $417,- 
433,346,  leaving  a  balance  in  the  Treasury  of  $149,502,472. 
The  money  spent  for  the  civil  service  was  $19,031,283; 
foreign  intercourse,  $1,490,776 ;  military  establishment, 
$57,655,675;  naval  establishment,  $21,780,229  ;  collecting 
customs  revenue,  $6.237,137  ;  assessing  and  collecting  in 
ternal  revenue,  $7,234,531  ;  light-house  establishment, 
$2,588,300;  mint  establishment,  $1,067,097;  Indians, 
$3,407,938  ;  and  pensions,  $28,340,202  ;  while  the  balance 
was  devoted  to  miscellaneous  expenditures.  Turning  from 
the  operations  of  the  national  Treasury  to  the  banking  insti 
tutions,  we  find  the  following  information  :  the  national 
banks,  which  are  conducted  by  private  enterprise,  but  made 
perfectly  secure  by  the  General  Government,  number  1,627, 
and  have  a  capital  of  $436,478,311  ;  the  chartered  banks, 


COMMERCIAL   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS.  201 

which  are  disconnected  from  the  Government,  number  1,882, 
and  have  a  capital  of  $503,578,000;  the  private  bankers  re 
present  about  8400,000,000  of  capital ;  and  the  savings  banks 
are  estimated  to  hold  about  $195,000,000.  The  system 
upon  which  all  these  institutions  is  managed  is  quite  uni 
form — each  having  a  president  and  cashier,  a  board  of 
directors,  and  as  many  clerks  as  may  be  required.  Taken 
in  the  aggregate,  the  bankers  of  America  are  as  upright 
and  intelligent  as  any  in  existence ;  but  no  class,  from 
presidents  down  to  common  clerks,  are  so  liable  to  go 
astray,  and  therefore  it  is  that  the  papers  have  occasion 
ally  to  chronicle  acts  of  dishonesty  among  banking  men. 
On  the  score  of  success,  it  is  also  worth  mentioning  that 
the  private  bankers  have  at  all  times  led  the  way  in  the 
more  important  financial  negotiations  between  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries  ;  and  the  late  rebellion,  as 
well  as  the  preceding  war  with  Mexico,  were  both  greatly 
indebted  to  the  skill  of  two  men,  whose  names  as  bankers 
have  passed  into  history,  viz. :  William  W.  Corcoran  and 
Jay  Cooke.  Of  the  various  financial  institutions,  perhaps 
the  most  useful  and  truly  American  in  its  character  is  that 
known  as  the  savings  bank,  the  primary  object  of  which  is 
to  keep  in  safety  the  savings  of  the  poorer  classes,  for  the 
use  of  which  the  bank  pays  a  regular  interest.  Other 
banks  make  it  their  business  to  lend  money  for  commercial 
purposes,  but  not  so  with  the  savings  banks,  which  have 
more  to  do  with  real  estate  in  making  use  of  their  funds. 
With  regard  to  the  circulating  medium  of  the  United 
States,  we  may  remark  that  it  is  divided  into  paper  money 
and  specie.  The  former,  which  is  also  called  currency,  is 

all  issued  indirectly  from  the  National  Treasury,  in  de- 

9* 


202  LIFE   AND   KESOUECES   IN   AMERICA. 

nominations  ranging  from  ten  cents  to  $1,000,  and  $356,- 
000,000  being  a  legal  tender,  while  all  the  issues  under  one 
dollar  are  called  fractional  currency.  The  specie  of  the 
country  is  coined  at  a  national  mint,  located  in  Philadel 
phia,  and  of  course  under  the  direction  of  the  Treasury, 
and  is  composed  of  nickel,  copper,  silver,  and  gold ;  the 
copper  forming  one  and  two  cent  pieces ;  the  silver,  five, 
ten,  twenty-five,  and  fifty  cent  pieces ;  and  the  gold,  one, 
three,  five,  ten,  twenty,  and  fifty  dollar  pieces ;  to  all  of 
which  may  be  added  what  is  called  gold  and  silver  bullion. 
There  are  also  branch  mints  in  operation  at  San  Francisco, 
Denver,  Charlotte,  Carson  City,  and  an  assay  office  in  ]STew 
York.  While  it  is  true,  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
money  is  considered  a  great  power,  there  is  probably  no 
country  where  the  people  are  so  univerally  imbued  with 
the  love  of  gain,  or  place  so  high  an  estimate  on  the  pos 
session  of  wealth,  as  is  the  case  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 


LIFE  AMOEG  THE  MECHANICS. 


Ix  no  way,  perhaps,  can  the  magnitude  of  the  mechan 
ical  and  artisan  interests  of  America  be  better  realized  than 
by  walking  through  the  spacious  apartments  of  the  Patent 
Office  in  Washington,  where  are  to  be  found  over  one  hun 
dred  thousand  models  of  American  skill  and  enterprise. 
Of  these,  about  five  thousand  have  been  deposited  within 
the  last  three  years.  It  might  also  be  mentioned  that  the 
cost  of  supporting  the  Patent  Office  and  publishing  its 
records,  down  to  the  present  time,  has  been  twelve  mil 
lions  of  dollars ;  that  fifty  thousand  applications  for  patents 
have  been  rejected  ;  and  that  no  inventions,  which  are 
inoperative,  frivolous,  or  mischievous  can  ever  be  protected 
by  the  Government. 

Sixty  years  ago,  the  manufactures  of  the  country  were 
valued  at  $200,000,000;  to-day,  they  are  estimated  at 
$3,000,000,000  ;  while  the  people  who  are  engaged  in  this 
enormous  business  are  also  counted  by  millions.  Their 
character  is  varied  and  interesting.  All  labor  is  respected, 
but  this  is  especially  true  of  skilled  labor.  The  American 
mechanics  are  partial  to  the  higher  grades  of  work,  and 
this  has  a  tendency  to  elevate  them  in  society.  They  are 
ambitious  to  succeed,  but  often  fail  because  of  their  at 
tempting  too  much.  As  employers,  they  are  faithful  and 
punctual,  and  they  who  work  as  subordinates  seldom 
have  cause  to  complain.  As  fellow-laborers,  they  are  not 


204  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   IN  AMERICA. 

always  considerate,  but  offences  in  that  direction  grow  out 
of  individual  dispositions.  Their  minds  are  not  given  to 
abstract  thought,  but  they  are  fond  of  industrial  organiza 
tions.  In  dealing  with  men  and  things,  and  in  surmount 
ing  obstacles,  they  are  wonderfully  ingenious ;  and  perhaps 
their  chief  intellectual  distinction  is  that  of  inventors.  To 
use  the  language  of  another,  their  moral  qualities  are  not 
striking,  but  generally  sound.  They  are  a  good-natured 
people,  and  treat  strangers  with  kindness.  Fairness  and 
honesty  prevail  among  them.  Discipline  is  weak.  They 
respect  their  institutions,  and  deserve  to  be  called  a  law- 
abiding  people.  Their  homes  are  generally  well  ordered, 
and  their  domestic  virtues  are  above  the  average  among 
European  nations.  They  are  fond  of  amusements,  but 
perhaps  too  willing  to  break  through  the  rules  of  a  wise 
restraint.  Different  sections  and  pursuits,  however,  bring 
about  different  results ;  and  what  is  true' of  one  neighbor 
hood  is  not  always  true  of  another ;  and  of  course  the  in 
habitants  of  the  newly- settled  regions  are  not  generally 
as  far  advanced  in  culture  as  those  located  in  the  older 
cities  and  towns.  A  single  brick  or  block  of  stone  may 
give  us  a  faint  idea  of  the  house  to  be  built  of  that  mate 
rial  ;  and  in  like  manner,  we  may  partially  become  ac 
quainted  with  the  manufacturing  population  by  consider 
ing  a  few  of  its  leading  classes,  who  come  under  the  head 
of  mechanics  or  artisans. 

And,  first,  as  to  the  very  extensive  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  the  production  of  flour  and  meal — the  millers 
of  the  country.  They  are  to  be  found  in  every  part,  and 
the  business  of  transforming  the  various  cereals  into  flour 
is  carried  on  by  steam-mills,  as  well  as  those  propelled  by 


LIFE   A^IOIs"G   THE   MECHANICS.  205 

water  and  wind  power.  The  mills  which  are  run  by  water 
power  are  the  most  numerous,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  Iev7el 
districts  that  the  old-fashioned  windmill  is  in  vogue. 
Many  of  the  mills  in  question  are  of  limited  capacity,  and 
only  intended  to  grind  the  grain  which  is  sent  to  them 
from  the  immediate  vicinity;  but  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  are  located  very  extensive  establishments,  which 
send  their  brands  of  flour  to  various  quarters  of  the  globe. 
In  these  larger  mills,  which  run  both  day  and  night,  and 
employ  two  sets  of  hands,  they  grind  and  turn  out  from 
three  hundred  to  one  thousand  barrels  of  flour  in  each 
twenty-four  hours.  Wheat  is  always  a  cash  article;  and  to 
carry  on  the  business,  a  large  capital  is  required.  Besides 
the  regular  millers  and  their  immediate  assistants,  these 
establishments  give  employment  to  large  numbers  of 
coopers,  who  manufacture  the  barrels  that  are  used ;  but 
within  the  past  year,  complaints  have  been  made  against 
these  millers  that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  using  old  bar 
rels,  which  had  been  used  for  other  purposes.  This  kind 
of  dishonesty,  however,  is  not  common,  and  will  undoubt 
edly  be  remedied.  The  weight  of  a  barrel  of  flour  is 
always  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds,  and  it  is  uni 
versally  inspected  by  a  public  officer  before  shipment  from 
the  place  of  its  manufacture;  so  that  the  several  classes 
through  whose  hands  each  barrel  of  flour  is  obliged  to 
pass  are  the  proprietors,  the  millers  and  their  assistants, 
the  coopers,  the  inspectors,  and  finally  the  book-keeping 
and  shipping  clerks.  In  the  larger  mills,  moreover,  regu 
lar  millwrights  are  also  permanently  employed. 

Excepting  agriculture,  there  is  no  branch  of  American 
industry  which    gives  employment  to  so  many   people  as 


206  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   Itf   AMERICA. 

that  of  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing.  The  New  England 
States  take  the  lead  in  this  business,  and  Massachusetts  is 
in  advance  of  all  the  other  individual  States,  the  largest 
single  establishment  in  that  State  giving  employment  to 
fourteen  hundred  persons,  and  paying  out,  in  the  way  of 
wages,  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 
And  it  is  reported  of  one  town  that  it  turned  out,  in  one 
year,  boots  and  shoes  enough  to  amount  to  five  millions  of 
dollars.  The  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  come 
next  to  New  England,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  product 
of  the  whole  United  States  is  very  much  more  than  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  per  annum ;  while  the  raw 
material  in  the  way  of  leather  has  reached  a  similar 
amount.  The  finer  qualities  of  boots  and  shoes  are  usually 
made  in  the  cities,  and  chiefly  by  Germans,  and  the  more 
ordinary  varieties  in  the  country-towns  and  villages.  In 
some  of  these,  almost  every  house  has  attached  to  it  a 
shop  for  making  shoes,  and  all  the  members  of  the  family, 
when  not  engaged  in  household  affairs,  or  in  cultivating  a 
garden,  take  part  in  the  manufacture.  Within  the  last 
year,  quite  a  colony  of  Chinese  shoemakers  have  found 
employment  in  New  England,  and  every  inducement  is 
given  to  encourage  their  coming  in  greater  numbers. 
Where  the  sewing-machine  is  employed,  large  numbers  of 
shoes  are  turned  out  by  some  families,  which  are  paid  for 
on  being  delivered  to  the  local  dealers,  who  ship  them  to 
the  wholesale  merchants  in  the  cities.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  shoes  made  are  fastened  on  the  bottom  by  wooden 
pegs,  thereby  creating  peg  factories,  in  many  of  which  shoe- 
lasts  are  made,  the  combined  business  amounting  to  many 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  About  one-third  of  the  people 


LIFE   AMOKG  THE   MECHANICS.  207 

engaged  in  making  shoes  are  women,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  aggregate  amount  now  paid  to  the  shoemakers  as  wages 
is  not  far  from  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  With  regard  to 
the  leather  used  in  this  enormous  business,  it  is  chiefly 
manufactured  in  the  country,  and  its  annual  production 
reaches  very  nearly  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

The  manufacture  of  clothing  for  men,  boys,  women,  and 
children  has  become  a  business,  of  late  years,  of  great  mag 
nitude.  It  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  large  cities,  and  gives 
direct  employment  to  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
hands,  the  largest  proportion  of  whom  are  women.  Accord 
ing  to  the  latest  published  returns  of  the  Census  Office, 
they  received  in  one  year  nearly  twenty  millions  of  dollars 
in  wages,  and  produced  merchandise  which  sold  for  about 
ninety  millions  of  dollars.  The  general  distribution  of 
wealth  in  America  enables  the  people  of  all  classes  to  be 
comfortably  and  respectably  attired,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
one  class  is  compelled  to  wear  the  cast-off  clothing  of 
another  class.  Out  of  this  fact  has  grown  the  vast  demand 
for  ready-made  clothing  of  moderate  cost,  which  has  devel 
oped  into  an  immense  and  growing  trade,  giving  employ 
ment  to  multitudes  of  women  in  the  larger  cities,  who 
would  otherwise  find  it  difficult  to  support  themselves  in 
comfort.  The  cutters  of  common  clothing  are  principally 
Americans,  while  the  Germans  and  Irish  are  chiefly  em 
ployed  in  the  other  branches  of  the  business.  The  wages, 
both  for  men  and  women,  are  larger  than  those  paid  in 
.Europe.  The  American  women  are  noted  for  their  fond 
ness  for  dress,  and  carry  the  custom  of  clothing  their  chil 
dren  to  a  preposterous  extent ;  and  hence  the  demand  for 
fancy  articles  of  dress  is  probably  greater  than  in  any  other 


208  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN  AMERICA. 

civilized  country  on  the  globe.  And  while  that  wonderful 
invention  called  the  sewing-machine  has  not  only  greatly 
increased  the  means  of  producing,  it  has  at  the  same  time 
created  an  increased  demand  for  every  variety  of  clothing. 
Of  the  class  of  artisans  who  are  engaged  in  the  manu 
facture  of  machines,  the  number  is  not  far  from  fifty  thou 
sand.  The  machines  made  by  them  are  well-nigh  countless 
in  numbers  and  variety,  ranging  from  steam-engines  and  loco 
motives  down  to  printing-presses  and  sewing-machines.  There 
is  no  country  in  the  world  where  hydraulic  machinery  or 
watermiils  are  so  abundant  as  in  America,  and  its  water  pow 
er  is  practically  unlimited.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  machin 
ists  of  the  country  are  noted  for  their  superior  intelligence, 
and  turn  their  attention  more  to  what  is  useful  than  to 
what  is  ornamental.  Among  the  articles  which  they  pro 
duce  of  special  importance  may  be  mentioned  clocks  and 
watches,  firearms,  cabinet  furniture,  cutlery,  and  all  sorts 
of  implements  and  tools,  musical  instruments,  including 
organs  and  piano-fortes,  carriages,  soap  and  candles,  bricks, 
tobacco  in  all  shapes,  with  articles  of  unnumbered  varie 
ties  made  of  iron,  copper,  brass,  glass,  and  wood.  Within 
the  bounds  of  the  Republic  may  be  found  the  raw  material  for 
almost  every  branch  of  manufacturing  industry.  The  intel 
lectual  power  and  skill  of  the  American  mechanic  may  be 
partly  appreciated  by  the  fact  that  the  manufactories  of 
the  country,  when  last  officially  published,  numbered  one 
hundred  and  forty-one  thousand,  besides  the  machine-shops 
of  great  value  and  capacity,  yielding  products  to  the  value 
of  two  thousand  millions  of  dollars.  These  immense 
results,  which  include  the  products  of  the  cotton  and  wool 
manufactories,  whilst  measurably  affected  by  the  wealth  of 


LIFE   AMOXG  THE   MECHANICS.  209 

the  soil  and  its  successful  cultivation,  are  yet  traceable 
to  the  artisan  skill,  energies,  and  industry  of  the  American 
people.  It  has  been  said  that  the  manufacturing  and 
mechanical  capacities  of  the  Northern  States  of  America 
were  the  primary  cause  of  their  success  in  the  late  rebel 
lion,  and  that  a  more  striking  illustration  of  the  power  and 
value  of  such  resources  is  not  to  be  found  in  history.  In 
looking  over  the  official  lists,  we  find  that  the  mechanics 
and  artisans  of  the  United  States  might  be  arranged  in 
classes  which  number  about  one  hundred,  and  of  course,  in 
a  paper  like  the  present,  it  is  impossible  to  describe  them 
with  minuteness. 

But  let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  the  subject  of  compensa 
tion.  Common  laborers  in  America  earn  from  one  to  two 
dollars  per  day,  without  board.  The  wages  for  skilled 
labor  are  considerably  higher,  but  they  cannot  be  precisely 
specified,  because  the  workmen  make  their  own  contracts 
with  their  employers,  the  prices  being  regulated  by  ability, 
the  season,  and  the  nature  of  the  business.  By  way  of 
illustration,  however,  we  append  the  following  selection,  as 
about  the  rate  of  full  monthly  wages  in  vogue  at  the  pres 
ent  time,  viz. :  bakers,  fourteen  dollars;  blacksmiths,  ninety 
dollars ;  bricklayers,  one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars ; 
book-binders,  eighteen  dollars  ;  butchers,  twenty  dollars  ; 
cabinet-makers,  ninety  dollars;  carpenters,  one  hundred 
and  twelve  dollars ;  cigar-makers,  sixty  dollars ;  confec 
tioners,  forty  dollars ;  coopers,  one  hundred  dollars ; 
engineers,  ninety-two  dollars ;  machinists,  ninety-two  dol 
lars;  masons,  one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars;  millers, 
ninety-two  dollars ;  painters,  sixty  dollars  ;  printers,  ninety- 
two  dollars;  harness  and  saddle  makers,  sixty  dollars; 


210  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES  1^  AMERICA. 

shoemakers,  sixty  dollars ;  tailors,  eighty  dollars ;  stone 
cutters,  one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars ;  watchmakers, 
eighty  dollars ;  wheelwrights,  eighty-four  dollars ;  wagon- 
makers,  ninety-two  dollars ;  spinners  and  weavers,  forty- 
eight  dollars;  and  wood-carvers,  eighty  dollars.  The 
above  are  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  trades  followed  in 
America,  but  they  are  among  the  most  important.  Gener 
ally  speaking,  the  lowest  wages  are  paid  in  the  cities  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  they  increase  as  the  immigrant 
passes  westward,  reaching  their  highest  point  on  the 
Pacific. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  some  of  the  incidental  circum 
stances  connected  with  that  portion  of  the  laboring  popu 
lation  devoted  to  mechanical  employments.  The  hours  for 
beginning  and  ending  a  day's  work  vary  according  to  the 
seasons  of  the  year.  Hitherto,  it  has  been  customary  to 
labor  ten  hours,  but  this  has  generally  been  regulated  by 
agreements  between  the  employer  and  his  hired  men. 
Within  the  last  two  years,  however,  this  business  has  been 
mixed  up  with  politics,  and  Congress  has  been  induced  to 
pass  a  law  limiting  a  day's  labor  to  eight  hours  so  far  as  the 
public  service  is  concerned.  Whether  these  regulations 
have  resulted  to  the  advantage  of  the  employed  or  the 
employer  is  not  yet  settled.  It  is  alleged  that  they  have 
tended  to  make  discord  in  the  more  important  establish 
ments,  causing  the  employers  to  lower  the  wages  paid,  and 
at  the  same  time  making  the  employed  restless  and  more 
disposed  than  formerly  to  demand  unreasonable  terms. 
Looking  at  the  mechanics  of  the  United  States  in  the  aggre 
gate,  it  may  safely  be  said  that  they  live  in  comfortable 
houses,  have  the  best  of  plain  food,  husband  their  money 


LIFE   AMOXG  THE  MECHANICS.  211 

with  care,  and  are  less  addicted  to  intemperance  than  are 
certain  classes  who  think  themselves  their  superiors.  They 
are  not  so  driven  in  their  employments  that  they  cannot 
enjoy  a  suitable  amount  of  recreation,  and  their  amusements 
or  entertainments  differ  according  to  their  nationalities. 
If  the  Germans  have  their  gardens,  where  they  congregate 
at  stated  times  to  play  games  and  drink  beer ;  the  Irish 
have  their  festivals  in  honor  of  their  patron-saints,  as  well 
as  their  wakes  or  hilarious  funerals ;  while  the  native-born 
inhabitants  amuse  themselves  with  pastimes  peculiarly 
American,  including  picnics,  steamboat  excursions,  and 
athletic  games — but  seldom  omitting  to  read  the  daily  pa 
pers,  or  have  something  to  do  with  politics.  While  it  is 
true  that  there  may  here  and  there  be  found  artisans  who 
have  a  hard  struggle  to  get  along  comfortably,  yet  a  large 
proportion  who  are  industrious  and  frugal  succeed  in  lay 
ing  up  money  and  surrounding  themselves  with  the  elegan 
cies  of  life.  Indeed,  in  many  parts  of  the  country  very 
marked  changes  are  going  on  among  the  people,  and 
successful  mechanics  are  pushing  aside  the  older  and  more 
aristocratic  families,  and  giving  tone  to  society.  If  called 
upon  to  say  from  what  sphere  the  largest  number  of  mod 
erately  wealthy  men  have  arisen,  our  observation  would 
incline  us  to  answer,  the  mechanical  and  artisan  classes. 
There  are  men  in  all  the  larger  cities,  who  were  once 
engaged  in  the  most  ordinary  employments,  but  who  have 
amassed  fortunes  that  are  truly  regal,  and  who  are  using 
their  wealth  in  helping  the  poor,  building  hospitals,  and 
founding  institutions  of  learning,  thereby  proving  that  all 
the  wisdom  and  benevolence  are  not  possessed  alone  by  the 
cultivated  and  intellectual  classes. 


212  LIFE  AKD   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

By  way  of  illustrating  the  wonderful  changes  that  have 
taken  place  in  mechanical  employment,  through  the  inven 
tions  of  machinery,  we  may  direct  attention  to  the  simple 
affair  called  a  button.  The  first  manufacturer.,  in  America, 
of  these  useful  articles,  was  one  Samuel  Williston.  He 
was  a  country  merchant,  and  while  selling  buttons  made 
of  wood,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  covering  them  with  cloth, 
and  he  invented  a  machine  for  that  purpose,  which  was 
the  first  one  invented  in  the  United  States.  From  this 
humble  beginning  sprang  up  a  factory,  until  this  man  was 
found  to  be  making  one-half  of  the  buttons  made  in  the 
whole  world.  Several  factories  which  he  established  are 
coining  wealth  for  their  proprietors,  and  are  known  to  the 
dealers  in  all  climes.  This  man  Williston  is  now  nearly 
eighty  years  of  age,  and  is  worth  about  five  millions  of 
dollars;  he  is  also  a  very  liberal  man,  and  has  endowed 
several  institutions  of  learning  with  more  than  a  million  of 
dollars,  one  of  them,  being  Amherst  College,  where  several 
Japanese  students  are  at  the  present  time  receiving  their 
education. 

The  inventive  talent  of  the  Americans  is  universally 
recognized,  and  its  special  power  is  derived  from  the 
existing  facilities  for  education.  Among  these,  the  most 
important,  undoubtedly,  are  those  afforded  by  the  great 
mechanical  exhibitions,  which  take  place  in  some  of  the 
leading  cities  every  year.  One  of  them,  which  occurs  in 
New  York,  has  come  to  be  considered  as  a  national  institu 
tion.  The  total  number  of  laboring  men,  women,  and 
children  in  the  United  States  has  been  estimated  at 
thirteen  (13,000,000)  millions;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
steam  machinery  of  the  country  is  equal  to  two  millions 


LIFE  AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  213 

2,000,000  of  horse-power,  or  twenty-eight  millions  (28,000, 
000)  of  grown  men ;  so  that  while  one-third  of  this  work 
is  done  by  laboring  men,  two-thirds  are  performed  by 
laboring  machines.  According  to  the  opinion  of  a  leading 
British  statesman,  there  are  few  countries  in  which  the 
workingman  is  held  in  such  repute  as  in  the  United  States. 
The  laboring  classes  may  be  said  to  embrace  the  entire 
American  nation.  American  artisans  prefer  those  occupa 
tions  in  which  the  exercise  of  brain  is  in  greater  demand 
than  that  of  the  elbow,  and  their  chief  ambition  is  to  attain 
the  positions  of  master-workmen.  Being  educated,  they 
perform  their  duty  with  less  supervision  than  is  required 
when  dependence  is  to  be  placed  upon  uneducated  hands. 
It  rarely  happens  that  a  workman  who  possesses  superior 
skill  in  his  craft  is  disqualified  to  take  the  responsible  posi 
tion  of  superintendent  by  the  want  of  education  and 
general  knowledge.  The  true  mechanic  toils  at  his  trade 
under  the  conviction  that  manual  labor,  to  be  effective, 
must  adapt  itself  almost  wholly  to  the  direction  of  science; 
and  that  under  that  direction,  unskilled  labor  necessarily 
becomes  skilled,  and  limited  trusts  enlarge  into  influential 

7  £3 

responsibility. 

As  already  intimated  in  this  paper,  the  records  of  the 
Patent  Office  bear  witness  to  the  effects  of  general  educa 
tion  in  the  development  of  mechanical  ingenuity  in  the 
American  people.  Xowhere  in  the  world,  it  has  been 
justly  said,  does  it  exist  to  the  same  extent;  and  yet,  in 
some  of  the  most  important  departments  of  manufacture, 
the  people  are  now  nearly  stationary,  while  in  others  they 
make  but  little  progress.  A  few  years  ago,  Germany  sent 
to  Massachusetts  for  machinery  to  manufacture  woolen 


214:  LIFE  AKD   KESOUKCES  1^  AMEKICA. 

cloth ;  but  to-day  there  is  scarcely  any  broadcloth  made  in 
any  of  the  United  States.  Many  of  the  most  important 
improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture  are  of  American 
origin ;  and  yet  the  amount  of  cotton-wool  now  consumed 
hardly  exceeds  that  which  was  required  eight  years  ago. 
The  same  is  true  of  various  other  articles  of  manufacture. 
In  the  last  ten  years  the  population,  has  increased  about 
nine  millions;  and  yet  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
many  of  the  manufacturing  establishments  is  not  now 
greater  than  it  was  then.  The  whole  increase,  therefore,  is 
forced  into  agriculture  and  trade ;  and  a  new  class  of  men, 
called  "middle-men" — who  neither  produce,  nor  sell  at 
their  own  risk — has  sprung  into  existence,  whose  influence 
upon  the  prosperity  of  the  country  is  thought  to  be  of 
doubtful  character. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE    AND    INSTI 
TUTIONS. 


UNDER  this  head  we  propose  to  submit  a  general  account 
of  religion  in  the  United  States. 

O 

There  is  no  state  religion,  and  the  Government  under 
takes  only  to  maintain  order  and  administer  justice  to  all, 
and  they  are  entirely  free  to  choose  any  kind  of  religion, 
save  those  which  are  contrary  to  its  civil  laws.  Men  as 
sociate  themselves,  according  to  their  preferences,  under 
separate  organizations  called  churches.  They  all  believe 
in  one  eternal  and  incomprehensible  Deity,  and  in  the  im 
mortality  of  the  soul.  All  these  churches  have  a  book 
called  the  Bible.  This  book  is  believed  to  be  a  revelation 
from  the  Deity,  or  God,  and  is  divided  into  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  the  former  being  called  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  the  latter  the  Greek  Scriptures.  They  claim 
that  the  Old  Testament  contains  the  most  ancient  writings 
known,  and  gives  a  history  of  the  world  and  of  man 
from  the  creation,  and  also  prophesies  the  coming  of  Christ 
at  a  given  time,  which  is  fulfilled  in  the  Xew  Testament, 
wherein  there  is  a  history  of  the  birth  and  ministry,  death 
and  resurrection  of  Christ,  contained  in  its  principal  portion 
called  the  gospel,  the  meaning  of  which  word  is  "  good 
news,"  and  is  applied  to  the  story  of  Christ.  Christ  is  be 
lieved  to  have  been  "  God  manifest  in  the  flesh,"  and  all 
who  believe  in  Him  are  called  Christians. 


216  LIFE  AKD   RESOURCES   IX  AMERICA. 

As  specimens  of  each  of  these  parts  of  the  Bible,  we  quote 
here  some  of  its  leading  features.  From  the  Old,  the 
"Decalogue,"  containing  the  Ten  Commandments  or  pre 
cepts,  written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  claimed  to  have  been 
delivered  by  God  to  an  inspired  man  called  Moses,  at 
Mount  Sinai,  in  Asia ;  they  will  be  found  in  the  following 
words  : 

"And  God  spake  all  these  words,  saying,  I  am  the  Lord 
thy  God,  which  have  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
out  of  the  house  of  bondage.  (1)  Thou  shalt  have  no 
other  gods  but  me.  (2)  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee 
any  graven  image,  or  any  likeness  of  anything  that  is  in 
the  heaven  above  or  in  the  earth  beneath,  or  that  is  in  the 
water  under  the  earth  ;  thou  shalt  not  bow  down  thyself 
to  them  nor  worship  them ;  for  I  the  Lord  thy  God  am  a 
jealous  God,  visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the 
children  unto  the  third  and  fourth  generation  of  them  that 
hate  me,  and  showing  mercy  unto  them  that  love  me  and 
keep  my  commandments. 

(3)  "Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God 
in  vain,  for  the  Lord  will  not  hold  him  guiltless  that  taketh 
His  name  in  vain.     Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep  it 
holy.     Six  days  shalt  thou  labor  and  do  all  thy  work;  but 
the  seventh  day  is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy  God ;  in  it 
thou   shalt   not  do  any   work,  thou,  nor  thy  son,  nor  thy 
daughter,  thy  man-servant,  nor  thy  maid-servant,  nor  thy 
cattle,  nor  thy  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gates  ; 

(4)  "For  in  six  days  the  Lord  made  heaven  and  earth, 
the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is,  and  rested  the  seventh  day  : 
wherefore  the  Lord  blessed  the  seventh  day  and  hallowed 
it. 


11ELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   IXSTITUTIOXS.  217 

(5)  "Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother:  that  thy  days 
may  be  long  upon  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God 
giveth  thee. 

(G)   "Thou  shalt  not  kill. 

(7)  "'Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

(8)  "Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

(0)  "'Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy 
neighbor. 

(10)  "Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  house,  thou 
shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  wife,  nor  his  man-servant, 
nor  his  maid-servant,  nor  his  ox,  nor  his  ass,  nor  anything 
that  is  thy  neighbor's." 

From  the  New  Testament  we  quote  a  part  of  Christ's 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  as  follows  : 

"  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit,  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom 
of  heaven. 

"  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn ;  for  they  shall  be  com 
forted. 

"  Blessed  are  the  meek  ;  for  they  shall  inherit  the  earth. 

"  Blessed  are  the  merciful ;  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy. 

"  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart ;  for  they  shall  see  God. 

"Blessed  are  the  peace-makers;  for  they  shall  be  called 
the  children  of  God. 

"  Blessed  are  they  which  arc  persecuted  for  righteousness' 
sake ;  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

"  Blessed  are  ye  when  men  shall  revile  arid  persecute  you, 
and  shall  say  all  manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely  for 
my  sake." 

After  thus  declaring  wrho  are  blessed,  he  goes  on  to  say 
who  are  the  salt  of  the  earth,  the  light  of  the  world;  and 
that  he  came  to  fulfill  the  law  ;  what  it  is  to  kill,  commit 

10 


218  LIFE   AIST)   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA 

adultery,  and  to  swear.  He  exhorts  man  to  suffer  wrong ; 
to  love  even  his  enemies  ;  to  labor  after  perfectness ;  to 
give  alms ;  teaches  him  how  to  pray,  how  to  forgive,  how 
to  fast,  where  to  lay  up  treasures,  how  to  serve  God  and 
not  to  serve  mammon,  not  to  be  careful  for  worldly  things, 
to  seek  God's  kingdom.  He  reproves  rash  judgment,  for 
bids  to  cast  holy  things  to  dogs.  He  warns  them  to  be 
ware  of  false  prophets ;  to  be  doers  of  the  word,  and  to  be 
like  houses  built  upon  a  rock,  lie  then  teaches  the  fol 
lowing  prayer : 

"  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,  hallowed  be  thy  name, 
Thy  kingdom  come,  Thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in 
heaven  ;  give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread ;  and  forgive  us 
our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  debtors,  and  lead  us  not  into 
temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  evil,  for  thine  is  the  king 
dom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory,  forever.  Amen." 

In  another  place  he  says:  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord 
thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with 
all  thy  mind.  This  is  the  first  and  great  commandment, 
and  the  second  is  like  unto  it  :  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor 
as  thyself.  On  these  two  commandments  hang  all  the  law 
and  the  prophets." 

And  still  in  another  part  of  the  Gospel  we  find  this  asser 
tion  :  "  Not  every  one  that  saith  unto  me,  Lord,  Lord, 
shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;  but  he  that  doct/i 
the  will  of  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven." 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Christ  was  crucified  on  a  cross, 
and  the  same  has  ever  been  considered  a  symbol  of  suifer- 
ing,  we  quote  the  following  mandate  :  "  And  when  he  had 
called  the  people  unto  him  with  his  disciples,  also,  he  said 
unto  them  :  Whosoever  will  come  after  me,  let  him  deny 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  219 

himself,  and  take  up  his  cross,  and  follow  me.  For  whoso 
ever  will  save  his  life,  shall  lose  it;  but  whosoever  shall 
lose  his  life,  for  my  sake,  and  the  gospel's,  the  same  shall 
save  it.  For  what  shall  it  profit  a  man,  if  he  shall  gain 
the  whole  world  and  lose  his  own  soul  ?  or  what  shall  a 
man  give  in  exchange  for  his  soul  ?  Whosoever,  therefore, 
shall  be  ashamed  of  me  and  of  my  words  in  this  adulterous 
and  sinful  generation,  of  him  also  shall  the  Son  of  man  be 
ashamed,  when  he  cometh  in  the  glory  of  his  Father  with 
the  holy  angels." 

What  is  called  the  "golden  rule"  is  contained  in  the  fol 
lowing  words  :  "  Therefore  all  things  whatsoever  ye  would 
that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them  :  for  this 
is  the  law  and  the  prophets." 

These  specimens  wrill  show  how  the  Christian  religion  ac 
cords  with  the  Bible. 

Both  the  Old  and  ISfew  Testaments  contain,  as  most  of 
such  books  do,  many  wonderful  and  strange  stories,  hard  to 
be  comprehended.  The  present  writer  deems  it  best  not  to 
allude  here  to  any  of  them,  as  they  appear  to  him  to  be  of 
no  grave  importance,  in  regard  to  their  real  religious  essence. 
The  increasing  influence  of  the  Bible  is  marvellously  great, 
penetrating  everywhere.  It  carries  writh  it  a  tremendous 
power  of  freedom  and  justice,  guided  by  a  combined  force 
of  wisdom  and  goodness. 

Education,  industry,  and  benevolence  are  also  other  strong 
agents  of  the  Bible  influence.  The  believers  in  it  have 
schools,  and  preaching,  and  missionary  enterprises.  For  the 
care  and  help  of  all  the  unfortunate  they  have  institutions. 
These  are  of  three  general  kinds  : 

First.  Schools  for  the  masses,  supported   by  the   State, 


220  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   IX   AMERICA. 

though  this  does  not  exclude  schools  supported  by  those 
directly  partaking  of  the  benefit. 

Second.  Institutions  of  mercy,  asylums  for  the  blind,  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  insane.  These,  because  of  the 
great  expense  attending  them,  are  general,  and  are  supported 
by  the  State ;  while  hospitals  and  infirmaries  and  lying-in 
establishments  are  denominational  or  belong  to  churches, 
and  are  supported  by  charitable  contributions. 

Third.  Penal  institutions,  which  include  houses  of  correc 
tion  for  young  persons,  jails,  and  penitentiaries — all  these 
being  conducted  more  upon  the  principle  of  reforming  the 
evil-doers  than  upon  the  principle  of  punishing  them. 

Having  now  given  a  general  outline  of  the  system  of  re 
ligion,  we  will  give  a  few  particulars  connected  with  the  sep 
arate  organizations. 

There  are  three  great  divisions  of  the  Christian  Church 
throughout  the  wrorld, — Protestant,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Greek  Church, — the  latter  being  organized  in  the  United 
States  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  name  Protestant  was  first  given  in  Germany  to  those 
who,  under  the  leadership  of  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine 
monk,  protested  against  a  decree  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  to  support  the  doctrines  of  Rome.  The  Pope,  Leo  X., 
had  granted  indulgences  for  sins,  on  the  payment  of  certain 
sums  of  money  into  the  church  treasury,  and  this  was 
deemed  wrong  by  Luther,  who  soon  founded  a  religion  in 
opposition  to  such  teachings,  and  the  name  Protestant  now 
comprehends  chiefly  all  those  Christians  who  are  opposed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Numerous  denominations  or  sects  have  since  sprung  up 
among  the  Protestants,  and  they  may  be  named  as  follows : 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  221 

Methodists,  Presbyterians,  Congregation alists,  Baptists, 
Episcopalians,  Lutherans,  Moravians,  Quakers,  Dutch  Re 
formed  Church,  Universalists,  Unitarians,  and  a  few  others. 
The  sacred  volume,  or  Bible,  in  which  all  these  sects  believe, 
although  some  of  them  interpret  it  differently  from  others, 
is  chiefly  printed  and  circulated  by  special  Bible  Societies, 
which,  in  connection  with  other  Societies  established  in 
Europe,  have  issued  the  book,  or  parts  of  it,  in  one  hun 
dred  and  sixty-five  different  languages,  and  circulated  it  to 
the  extent  of  one  hundred  and  one  millions  of  copies  during 
the  present  century.  With  regard  to  the  leading  principles 
just  mentioned  the  great  multitude  of  Protestants  are 
agreed ;  but  the  sects,  in  their  modes  of  worship,  are  some 
what  different  from  each  other,  and  must  be  mentioned 
separately.  Of  these,  the  most  extensive  class  are  the 
Methodists. 

This  sect  was  founded  in  England,  and  is  known  by  the 
names  of  Methodist  Episcopal  and  Methodist  Connection. 
It  receives  its  name  Methodist  from  the  fact  that  its  mem 
bers  profess  to  be  guided  in  their  living  by  the  methods  laid 
down  in  the  Bible,  and  the  name  of  Episcopal  marks  that 
branch  whose  power  is  vested  in  bishops.  They  have 
arranged  their  doctrines  of  belief  into  twenty-five  articles; 
they  recognize  the  two  great  sacraments  of  Baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in  common  with  all  Protestants.  They 
are  ruled  by  what  is  termed  a  Conference,  and  their  princi 
pal  officers  are  called  bishops,  preachers,  deacons,  and 
elders.  Their  churches  are  plain,  and  usually  built  with 
out  steeples  or  towers.  Many  of  the  preachers  spend  their 
time  in  travelling  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another 
as  missionaries. 


222  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

They  own  an  extensive  book  establishment,  and  annually 
give  large  sums  of  money  for  the  support  of  missionaries  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  In  1870,  their  preachers  num 
bered  19,170;  regular  members,  2,623,201;  colleges,  23; 
academies  and  seminaries  of  learning,  85  ;  while  the  total 
amount  of  their  property  was  about  $7,000,000. 

Presbyterians  are  governed  by  presbyteries,  or  associa 
tions  of  ministers  and  ruling  elders;  several  adjoining 
presbyteries  meet  under  the  name  of  Synod,  and  their 
General  Assembly,  which  is  their  highest  tribunal,  is  com 
posed  of  delegates  from  each  presbytery ;  this  body  meets 
annually,  and  attends  to  the  interests  of  their  church 
throughout  the  country.  Although  known  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  this  sect  was  introduced  into  America 
from  Scotland,  where  it  is  the  Established  Church.  The 
doctrines  which  they  profess  are  purely  evangelical  on  all 
points,  They  give  the  name  of  bishop  to  each  minister, 
and  hold  them  equal  in  power ;  the  meaning  of  the  word 
bishop  being  overseer.  In  1870,  the  total  number  of  min 
isters  was  4,877;  the  churches,  5,342 ;  and  the  members  or 
communicants,  524,945.  The  amount  contributed  and  ex 
pended  for  church  and  missionary  operations  was  about 
$8,000,000.  One  of  their  customs  is  to  have  protracted 
meetings,  which  continue  for  several  days  at  a  time,  and 
often  terminate  in  what  are  called  revivals  of  religion, 
usually  bringing  many  new  members  into  their  congrega 
tions. 

Closely  allied  to  the  above  is  the  sect  called  Congrega- 
tionalists.  It  is  the  same  as  that  known  in  England  as  the 
Independents,  and  they  have  been  identified  with  America 
ever  since  1620,  when  the  Pilgrims  first  landed  on  the 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  223 

shores  of  New  England.  The  essential  peculiarity  of  this 
church  is,  that  it  maintains  the  independence  of  each  con 
gregation.  It  is  associated  with  Presbyterians  in  mission 
ary  and  publishing  enterprises;  its  colleges  are  numerous, 
and  its  chief  strength  lies  within  the  New  England  States; 
its  ministers  number  3,043  ;  churches,  2,341  ;  its  members, 
306,518;  and  in  the  last  forty  years  it  has  expended  for 
religious  purposes  nearly  $6,000,000. 

Xext  to  the  Methodists,  in  point  of  numbers,  are  the 
Baptists.  They  differ  from  all  other  sects  in  regard  to  the 
rite  of  Baptism ;  they  not  only  exclude  infants  from  the 
rite,  but  in  case  of  all  adults,  insist  upon  immersion,  or 
subjecting  the  entire  body  to  the  influence  of  water;  hence 
they  have  in  most  of  their  churches  a  large  tank  or  basin, 
built  behind  their  pulpits,  in  which  the  ceremony  is  per 
formed  ;  but  in  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  quite  com 
mon  to  perform  the  rite  in  rivers  or  natural  pools  of  water, 
and  at  such  times  the  congregated  spectators  help  to  make 
the  scene  impressive :  the  officiating  pastor  leads  the  per 
son  to  be  baptized  into  the  water,  and  dips  the  head  under, 
while  pronouncing  the  necessary  form  of  words.  There  is 
a  loose  dress  worn  on  the  occasion  by  the  pastor  and  the 
person  to  be  baptized.  They  do  not  use  the  title  of  bishop, 
and  they  recognize  no  officials  higher  than  pastors  and 
deacons.  One  branch  of  this  sect  call  themselves  Close- 
Communion  Baptists,  and  will  not  allow  members  of  other 
denominations  to  commune  with  them  ;  another  branch  are 
called  Seventh-Day  Baptists,  because  they  consider  Satur 
day, — or  the  seventh  day  of  the  week, — the  true  Sabbath. 
Still  another  branch  are  called  Free-Will  Baptists,  because 
of  their  more  liberal  opinions.  According  to  the  latest 


224  LIFE   AXD   KESOUKCES   lis"   AMERICA. 

records  the  members  of  this  church  number  1,221,349; 
the  churches,  15,143 ;  and  ministers,  8,784.  They  publish 
thirty-five  periodicals;  and  support  twenty-five  colleges 
and  fourteen  seminaries  of  learning. 

We  now  oome  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  It 
consists  of  thirty-nine  confederated  dioceses  under  the  care 
of  bishops,  to  whom  their  priests  and  deacons  are  sub 
ordinate.  Each  bishop  has  charge  of  a  diocese  or  circuit, 
which  is  the  extent  of  his  jurisdiction  and  generally  com 
prises  one  State.  These  representative  bishops  meet  in  a 
General  Convention,  composed  of  the  "House  of  Bishops," 
consisting  of  all  the  diocesan  and  missionary  bishops,  and 
of  the  "  House  of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputies,"  consisting 
of  four  laymen  from  each  diocese.  This  convention  meets 
triennially.  Each  diocese  has  its  Annual  Convention,  com 
posed  of  its  bishop  and  assistant  bishop,  if  there  be  one, 
and  the  priests,  deacons,  and  laity. from  each  congregation; 
and  all  disputed  questions  are  referred  to  the  House  of 
Bishops.  This  sect  has  a  written  form  of  worship,  called 
a  Liturgy,  which  is  embodied  in  a  book  called  the  "  Common 
Prayer;"  it  is  founded  upon  the  one  used  by  the  Church 
of  England,  with  such  alterations  as  were  deemed  expedi 
ent  upon  its  adoption  in  the  United  States.  There  have 
been  several  dissensions  in  this  church  growing  out  of  the 
use  of  this  book,  and  these  have  caused  the  division  of  the 
sect  into  High  and  Low  Church.  They  are  the  only  Prot 
estants,  excepting  the  Dutch  Reformed,  who  wear  robes 
or  gowns  while  performing  their  priestly  office.  This 
gown  is  of  black  silk,  fitting  loosely,  and  is  worn  while 
preaching  and  at  funerals.  A  white  gown  is  used  for  all 
other  services,  which  is  made  of  white  muslin;  bish- 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   A^D   INSTITUTION'S.  225 

ops  wear  only  the  white  gown.  They  have  52  bishops, 
and  their  priests  and  deacons  number  2,786;  their 
parishes,  2,005 ;  and  members  or  communicants  about 


The  denomination  known  as  Lutherans  claims  to  be 
more  especially  Protestant  than  any  other,  and  takes  its 
name  from  Martin  Luther,  although  that  celebrated  reform 
er  was  opposed  to  its  use  in  that  connection.  Another 
name  for  this  church  is  that  of  the  United  Evangelical 
Church.  They  believe  in  the  actual  salvation  of  infants, 
dying  unbaptized. 

In  other  respects  the  Lutherans  substantially  agree  with 
all  the  denominations  hitherto  mentioned.  It  has  lon«" 

C? 

been  an  influential  body  in  America;  its  ministers  number 
1,933;  its  churches,  3,417;  and  members,  387,746.  Close 
ly  allied  to  the  sects  already  mentioned  are  those  known 
as  the  Dutch  Reformed  and  the  Moravians.  The  first  of 
these  has  its  seat  of  power  in  New  York; "its  ministers 
number  974,  and  its  members,  175,091.  The  Moravians, 
though  not  numerous,  have  also  been  noted  for  their  devo 
tion  to  missionary  labor,  especially  in  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America. 

All  the  denominations  described  above  are  commonly 
styled  as  Orthodox  or  Evangelical.  The  following  are 
those  which  in  some  degree  are  in  opposition  to  the  others 
in  both  faith  and  principle.  They  are  regarded  very  liberal 
and  broad  in  their  views. 

The  sect  known  as  Universalists  claim  that  their  doc 
trines  were  preached  in  the  United  States,  as  far  back  as 
one  hundred  years  ago.  They  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  giving  to  Christ  the  second  place,  and  making  him 

10* 


22Q  LIFE  AND  RESOURCES  IN  AMERICA. 

subordinate  to  the  Father ;  and  while  declaring  that  God 
is  infinite,  they  believe  in  the  final  destruction  of  evil  and 
the  restoration  of  all  human  souls  through  Jesus  Christ. 
They  do  not  believe  that  any  of  the  human  race  will  be  final 
ly  lost.  Their  government  is  representative  and  ecclesiasti 
cal;  and  they  have  1,279  societies,  998  churches,  and  724 
preachers ;  publish  about  twenty  periodicals,  and  hold 
property  to  the  value  of  about  eight  hundred  thousand 
dollars. 

And  next  come  the  Unitarians.  They  oppose  the  doc 
trine  of  the  Trinity,  which  is  held  by  the  great  majority 
of  Protestants,  and  believe  in  the  absolute  unity  of  God. 
They  do  not  reject  the  existence  of  Christ,  but  believe  him 
to  have  been  only  a  man.  The  manner  of  their  worship  is 
simple,  and  each  church  manages  its  own  affairs  separately. 
This  sect  originated  in  the  United  States  in  1825,  and  is 
more  popular  in  Massachusetts  than  in  any  other  State  of 
the  Union.  The  number  of  societies  which  they  support  is 
334,  and  they  have  396  ministers,  a  large  proportion  of 
whom  are  not  permanently  settled.  They  support  two 
Theological  Seminaries ;  seven  or  eight  periodicals  ;  and 
fifteen  charitable  institutions.  The  population  connected 
with  this  denomination  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  thousand.  Within  the  last  few  years  they 
have  accepted  the  co-operation  of  the  Universalists  in  their 
efforts  to  do  good ;  and  they  have  made  the  following 
agreement : 

"  Reaffirming  our  allegiance  to  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  to  secure  the  largest  unity  of  the  spirit,  and  the 
widest  practical  co-operation,  we  invite  to  our  fellowship 
all  who  wish  to  be  followers  of  Christ." 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  227 

Having  now  given  a  general  description  of  the  various 
Protestant  denominations,  it  is  proper  that  we  should  be  a 
little  more  explicit  in  regard  to  the  sacraments  of  the 
Evangelicals.  They  admit  as  essential  to  membership  only 
two  sacraments,  whicli  are  considered  of  Divine  institution. 
These  are  the  rite  of  Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  called 
the  Communion.  Baptism  is  a  representation  or  seal  of 
the  new  covenant,  and  is  the  appointed  ordinance  for  their 
introduction  into  the  church,  and  is  a  sign  of  profession, 
whereby  the  promises  of  remission  of  sins  and  adoption 
into  the  family  of  Christians  are  said  to  be  visibly  sealed  by 
the  Holy  Ghost.  All  the  denominations  mentioned  above, 
excepting  the  Baptists,  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  infant 
baptism,  and  that  it  has  an  influence  on  all  the  periods  of 
life ;  and  all  administer  the  rite  by  sprinkling  with  water 
the  face  of  the  child  or  adult  believer,  and  sometimes,  as  in 
the  Episcopal  Church,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the 
forehead  while  the  minister  pronounces  the  words,  "  I 
baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  and 
the  Holy  Ghost,"  showing  by  these  words  that  the  person 
baptized,  or  the  person  bringing  the  child,  believes  in  the 
Trinity  or  Triune  God,  the  Father  as  Creator,  the  Son  as 
Redeemer,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  Comforter.  The  water 
is  used  as  an  emblem  of  purity,  and  it  is  not  generally  sup 
posed  that  the  outward  sign  will  profit  those  who  live  and 
die  without  the  inward  grace,  but  is  to  be  an  adoption  into 
the  family  of  God,  by  being  consecrated  to  his  service,  and 
is  a  safeguard  from  evil,  so  far  as  the  remembrance  of  this 
consecration  has  its  influence.  Baptism,  therefore,  is  sup 
posed  to  commemorate  the  fact  that  Jesus  Christ  revealed 
God  to  be  the  Father,  himself  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit  the 


228  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IX   AMERICA. 

Holy  Ghost,  or  three  persons  in  the  one  Godhead,  all  of 
which  are  acknowledged  by  them  to  exist  as  a  mystery, 
understood  by  God  alone. 

The  Holy  Communion,  or  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
commemorates  the  fact  that  Jesus  Christ  lived  and  died  ;  and 
it  derived  its  institution  from  the  fact  that,  on  the  evening  be 
fore  his  death,  he  had  a  supper,  commonly  called  the  Last 
Supper,  and  he  gave  bread  and  wine  to  his  disciples,  saying, 
"  Take  and  eat  this  bread  in  remembrance  of  me,  and  as  often 
as  ye  drink  this  cup  ye  do  show  forth  the  Lord's  death  until 
He  come."  These  words  are  found  recorded  in  their  Bible, 
and  are  believed  by  all  Protestants  ;  so  that  this  Sacrament 
is  revered  by  all  who  believe  in  Christ's  sacrifice  on  the 
cross  to  atone  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world.  The  Epis 
copalian  and  the  Methodist  form  of  partaking  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  by  kneeling  around  the  chancel  in  front 
of  the  pulpit,  while  the  minister  passes  before  them,  first 
with  the  bread,  which  he  gives  to  each  one,  saying,  "  The 
body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was  given  for  thee, 
preserve  thy  body  and  soul  unto  everlasting  life.  Take 
and  eat  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thee.  and 
feed  on  him  in  thy  heart  by  faith,  with  thanksgiving."  He 
then  gives  the  cup  to  each  one,  saying,  "  The  blood  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was  shed  for  thee,  preserve  thy 
body  and  soul  unto  everlasting  life.  Drink  this  in  remem 
brance  that  Christ's  blood  was  shed  for  thee,  and  be 
thankful." 

Right  here  we  may  pause  for  a  moment  to  look  at  a 
passage  in  the  New  Testament,  wherein  Christ  declares 
himself  to  be  the  bread  of  life  to  all  believers,  and 
addressing  himself  to  the  doubting  Jews  :  "  Then  Jesus 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AXD   INSTITUTIONS.  229 

said  nnto  them,  'Verily,  verily  I  say  unto  you,  except  ye 
cat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  man,  and  drink  his  blood,  ye 
Lave  no  life  in  you.  AVLoso  catcth  my  flesh,  and  drinketh 
my  blood,  hath  eternal  life ;  and  I  will  raise  him  up  at  the 
last  day.  For  my  flesh  is  meat  indeed,  and  my  blood  is 
drink  indeed.  He  that  cateth  my  flesh,  and  drinketh  my 
blood,  dwelleth  in  me,  and  I  in  him.  As  the  living  Father 
hath  sent  me,  and  I  live  by  the  Father  ;  so  he  that  eateth 
me,  even  he  shall  live.  This  is  that  bread  which  came 
down  from  heaven  ;  not  as  your  fathers  did  eat  manna,  and 
arc  dead  ;  he  that  eateth  of  this  bread  shall  live  for 
ever.'  " 

The  Presbyterians  partake  of  the  Sacrament  sitting 
either  around  a  table,  which  is  placed  in  some  churches, 
or  in  the  pews  of  the  church  ;  the  bread  and  wine  being 
handed  to  them  by  the  Elders  of  the  church ;  the  minister 
at  the  same  time  repeating  words  nearly  allied  to  those  used 
by  Christ  at  the  Last  Supper.  The  Congregationalists  and 
Baptists  use  nearly  the  same  forms. 

The  next  rite  of  importance  is  that  of  marriage.  It  is 
considered  by  all  Christians  to  have  been  ordained  by  God, 
and  therefore  it  is  a  holy  rite,  not  to  be  engaged  in  with 
out  the  sanction  of  the  proper  authorities,  which  make  the 
tie  binding  and  lawful.  The  ceremony,  after  a  license  has 
been  granted,  is  performed  either  in  the  church  or  at  the 
home  of  the  bride,  always  by  a  clergyman,  if  one  can  be 
procured,  but  in  some  cases  of  emergency  it  can  be  sol 
emnized  or  performed  by  a  justice  of  the  peace.  The 
Episcopalians  have  a  written  form  contained  in  their 
Prayer-Book,  and  the  other  denominations  use  also  a  set 
form  of  words,  although  every  one  in  conclusion  makes 


230  LIFE  A:N~D  RESOURCES  IN  AMERICA. 

use  of  the  Bible  text :  "  Those  whom  God  hath  joined 
together,  let  no  man  put  asunder,"  which  was  the  injunc 
tion  used  by  Christ  at  the  institution  of  the  ordinance. 

The  burial  service  for  the  dead  is  also  a  written  form 
with  the  Episcopalians  arid  Methodists,  and  is  generally 
performed  at  the  house  of  the  deceased,  but  members  of 
the  church  are  frequently  buried  from  the  church,  where 
the  body  is  carried,  for  the  purpose  of  having  the  burial 
service  performed.  It  is  then  borne  out  of  the  church  by 
persons  selected  by  the  family,  called  pall-bearers,  and  fol 
lowed  by  the  relatives  and  friends  to  the  grave,  which  has 
been  previously  prepared,  and  is  there  committed  to  the 
earth  by  the  clergyman,  lowered  into  the  grave  by  the  pall 
bearers,  and  the  earth  thrown  upon  the  coffin,  and  the  grave 
is  then  closed. 

But  there  are  some  other  religious  classes  that  must  be 
mentioned,  who  are  noted  for  their  peculiarities. 

The  sect  called  Quakers  or  Friends  was  founded  in  Eng 
land  by  a  man  named  George  Fox,  and  the  recognized  head 
in  the  United  States  was  William  Penn.  The  epithet 
Quaker  was  given  to  them,  because  they  often  trembled 
under  an  awful  sense  of  the  infinite  purity  and  majesty  of 
God.  While  professing  to  be  guided  by  the  Protestant 
Bible,  they  have  the  following  peculiarities  :  They  are  very 
plain  in  their  manner  of  dress,  and  in  their  church  buildings  ; 
have  no  special  reverence  for  the  Christian  Sabbath;  speak 
in  public  assemblies  only  when  prompted  by  the  Spirit; 
and  they  allow  women  to  speak  at  their  meetings.  They 
are  to  some  extent  Unitarians  in  belief,  have  always  been 
opposed  to  slavery,  and  also  to  war,  and  never  participate 
in  military  affairs ;  and,  in  consequence  of  a  division  that 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  231 

once  took  place  among  them,  a  portion  of  them  followed 
the  lead  of  a  man  named  Elias  Hicks,  and  became  known 
as  Hickfiites.  The  city  of  Philadelphia  was  founded  by 
them,  and  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  have  been  their 
principal  fields  of  labor.  Of  late  years,  they  have  increased 
in  numbers  in  the  western  States  of  the  Union,  and  the 
sect  now  claims  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand 
members,  while  they  have  four  colleges,  and  quite  a  number 
of  large  boarding-schools. 

The  people  called  Shakers  originated  in  England  about 
one  hundred  years  ago,  but  are  now  confined  to  the  United 
States.  The  order  was  founded  by  two  women  named  Ann 
Lee  and  Jane  Wardley,  the  former  having  professed  to  re 
ceive  divine  light  directly  from  heaven.  They  believe  that 
God  is  dual,  there  being  an  eternal  Father  and  Mother  in 
the  Deity ;  and  the  same  of  Christ.  They  are  ascetics ;  live 
in  secluded  communities ;  take  no  part  in  earthly  govern 
ments,  and  are  virtually  opposed  to  the  marriage  relation. 
They  look  upon  idleness  as  sin,  and  are  noted  for  their 
neatness  and  plainness  of  dress.  There  are  twelve  societies 
or  settlements  of  them  in  the  United  States,  and  they  have 
not  increased  in  numbers  in  the  last  fifty  years,  their  total 
number  being  less  than  two  thousand.  They  are  famous 
for  their  knowledge  of  gardening,  and  in  their  principal 
community,  called  Mount  Lebanon,  in  Xew  York,  which 
they  own  in  common,  they  carry  on  an  extensive  business 
in  the  way  of  selling  seeds  and  certain  articles  of  domestic 
manufacture,  often  yielding  an  annual  income  of  fifty  thou 
sand  dollars.  In  their  religious  services  they  frequently 
resort  to  dancing,  and  they  believe  that  their  members  have 
the  power  of  healing  diseases  by  means  of  prayer  and  ab 
stinence  from  food. 


233  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

Another  class  of  religionists  are  called  the  New  Jerusalem 
Church,  and  was  originated  by  Einanuel  S  \vedenborg  of 
Sweden,  whose  name  it  sometimes  bears ;  its  doctrines  are 
founded  upon  the  Bible,  but  are  considered  by  Protestants 
as  very  symbolical.  Its  followers  in  America  are  not  nu 
merous,  but  generally  cultured  people.  Another  sect  is 
known  as  Mormon,  whose  founder  was  Joseph  Smith,  and 
whose  disciples  have  built  up  a  city  in  Utah;  they  are  the 
advocates  of  polygamy,  which  they  practise  to  a  large  ex 
tent,  and  Brigham  Young  is  the  name  of  their  present 
leader,  but  who,  within  a  short  time,  has  been  prosecuted 
by  the  General  Government  as  an  offender  against  the 
criminal  laws  of  the  country. 

Next  come  the  Millerites  or  Second  Adventists,  founded 
by  one  William  Miller,  who  preached  that  the  world  was 
to  be  destroyed  on  a  particular  day,  when  his  disciples 
dressed  themselves  in  white  robes  and  waited  for  the  great 
event  in  open  fields;  and  although  the  predictions  of  this 
pretended  prophet  were  not  fulfilled,  the  sect  still  survives 
to  a  small  extent.  And  then  there  are  the  Tunkers  or 
Harmless  People,  who  profess  to  be  animated  in  their 
religion  by  fraternal  love  ;  the  Spiritualists,  so  called,  who 
boast  that  they  are  infidels  and  heretics ;  the  Perfectionists, 
who  advocate  a  new  and  perfect  way  of  society ;  the  So 
cialists,  the  Fourierites,  the  Trappists,  who  believe  in  a 
"community  of  goods,"  and  finally  the  Female  Seers,  who 
claim  that  women  are  superior  to  men,  and  that  some  of 
their  sect  have  been  ordained  to  be  prophetesses  and  seers. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  comprises  that  society  of 
Christians  whose  members  acknowledge  the  Pope  as  the 
visible  head  of  the  church.  Its  followers  claim  it  to  be  co- 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  233 

eval  with  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  although 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  fully  organized  until  the 
fourth  century.  The  pope  is  also  called  a  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
and  the  word  pontificate  is  used  to  denote  the  reign  of  a 
pope.  He  resides  in  Rome,  and  his  power  extends  over  all 
his  followers,  wherever  they  may  exist,  and  all  the  churches 
of  this  sect  in  the  world  are  under  his  supervision.  All 
rules  for  government  and  discipline  emanate  from  him,  and 
he  is  supposed  by  them  to  be  the  present  representative  of 
St.  Peter,  one  of  Christ's  apostles,  from  whom  the  popes 
have  in  a  successive  line  proceeded;  thus  founding  their 
belief  in  Apostolical  succession.  After  the  pope,  the  next 
in  order  of  rank  or  power  is  the  archbishop,  who  presides 
over  the  bishops  of  the  dioceses  over  which  he  has  juris 
diction  ;  then  follow  the  bishops,  priests,  deacons,  and 
sub-deacons,  with  similar  powers  to  those  mentioned  in 
the  Episcopal  Church. 

But  that  which  chiefly  distinguishes  Roman  Catholics 
from  Protestants,  is  their  belief  in  the  Virgin  Mary  as  an 
intercessor  between  God  and  man,  and  also  in  the  inter 
cession  of  the  saints  or  the  good  persons  who  have  died, 
and  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  enjoyment  of  heaven.  These, 
they  think,  can  hear  and  transmit  the  prayers  of  the  faith 
ful  on  earth,  to  Christ,  and  that  the  prayers  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  are  especially  efficacious  with  her  son,  Jesus  Christ. 
They  believe  in  the  use  of  images  and  relics  of  saints  and 
the  Virgin,  and  generally  wear  these  and  the  crucifix,  or 
image  of  Christ,  about  their  person,  as  a  supposed  safeguard 
from  evil,  and  as  reminders  of  their  dependence  upon  these 
persons  for  salvation. 

Roman  Catholics  also  believe  in  the  prayers  of  the  church 


234  LIFE   AiSTD   KESOURCES    IN   AMERICA. 

for  the  dead,  and  what  is  called  High  Mass  is  said  in  the 
church,  after  death.  These  prayers  are  said  for  the  dead, 
believing  that  there  is  a  middle  state,  called  Purgatory, 
between  Heaven  and  Hell,  into  which  persons  pass  for  puri 
fication  before  entering  heaven,  and  therefore  that  the 
prayers  of  the  church,  and  good  people,  will  avail  to  get 
them  from  the  transition  state  into  Heaven.  Their  chief 
reliance  for  salvation  is  in  the  blood  of  Christ,  but  they 
believe  that  their  good  works  of  prayer,  fasting,  and  alms 
giving  are  meritorious.  They  believe  in  the  saving  grace 
of  baptism,  and  that  after  the  form  has  been  used,  the  per 
son  is  regenerate,  and  delivered  from  all  sin  :  besides  the 
use  of  water,  they  anoint  with  oil  and  use  salt,  and  the  rite 
is  performed  somewhat  after  the  following  manner  :  The 
priest  blows  three  times  upon  the  face  of  the  person, 
saying,  "Depart  out  of  him,  O  Unclean  Spirit,  and  give 
place  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Comforter;"  he  then  makes  a 
sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead  and  breast,  and  a  grain  of 
salt  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  person,  and  he  is  ad 
monished  to  keep  the  soul  from  the  corruption  of  sin. 
Oil  is  used  to  anoint  the  breast  and  between  the 
shoulders,  and  water  is  then  poured  upon  the  head  three 
times  in  the  form  of  the  cross — saying,  "  I  baptize  thee  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;" 
then  a  white  linen  cloth  is  put  upon  the  head,  and  a  lighted 
candle  is  placed  in  the  hand,  the  priest  saying,  "  Keep  the 
light  of  faith  ever  burning  by  the  oil  of  good  works."  He 
finally  pronounces  the  blessing  :  "  Go  in  peace ;  the  Lord 
be 'with  thee." 

They  believe  in  the  sacraments  of  confirmation,  marriage, 
penance,  extreme  unction,  and  holy  orders,  but  that  of  the 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  235 

Lord's  Supper,  or  Eucharist,  as  they  call  it,  and  Baptism, 
are  the  only  ones  held  in  common  with  Protestants,  and 
we  will  only  give  these  to  show  how  they  differ  from  that 
body  of  Christians.  They  believe  in  the  Real  Presence 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper  ;  or 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  changed  by  the  consecration 
of  the  priest  into  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ;  this 
they  term  Transubstantiation,  or  the  change  of  the  sub 
stance  from  bread  and  wine  into  flesh  and  blood.  In  per 
forming  this  sacrament  the  priest  blesses  the  bread,  or  wafer, 
as  they  call  it,  and  then  the  people  go  up  to  the  rail  before 
the  altar  and  kneel  down,  holding  a  towel,  or  white  cloth, 
before  their  breasts,  so  that  if  a  particle  of  the  bread 
should  fall  it  may  be  received  into  the  towel  and  not  fall 
to  the  ground.  Then  the  priest  distributes  it  to  them, 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  the  consecrated  bread 
upon  each  one,  saying,  "The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  preserve  thy  soul  unto  everlasting  life."  They  do 
not  give  the  cup  to  the  people,  but  the  priest  takes  all  the 
wine,  believing  that  after  consecration,  the  whole  body 
and  blood  and  divinity  is  substantially  contained  in  the 
wafer  or  in  the  wine,  and  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  both, 
and  the  bread  is  distributed  instead  of  the  wine,  as  there 
is  danger  of  spilling  the  blood  of  Christ  if  all  receive  the 
cup. 

Their  church  service  is  called  the  mass,  and  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  liturgy  or  manual.  It  is  read  in  Latin,  that  be 
ing  the  original  language  in  which  it  was  written,  and  the 
translation  accompanies  each  part,  and  is  thus  compre 
hended  by  those  who  can  read,  while  the  ignorant  accept 
the  form  and  hear  it  in  a  devout  manner,  believing  in  the 


236  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

power  of  the  priest  to  present  it  to  God  for  them,  although 
they  may  not  understand  the  words.  Their  faith  in  the 
priesthood  is  extreme,  and  they  have  frequent  access  to 
them  for  spiritual  advice  ;  the  special  guide  of  eacli  indi 
vidual  is  the  priest  who  presides  over  the  congregation 
of  which  he  is  a  member,  and  according  to  his  dictation 
are  performed  outward  acts  of  contrition,  satisfaction,  and 
confession,  called  penances,  by  which  those  sins  into  which 
they  may  have  fallen  after  baptism  can  be  remitted;  some 
of  these  penances  are  very  severe,  sometimes  requiring 
much  bodily  suffering  and  great  sacrifices  of  time  and 
pleasure,  and  often  much  fasting  before  absolution  is  given 
by  the  priest.  They  have  what  is  called  the  confessional, 
and  the  apartments  devoted  to  this  purpose  are  small 
closets  or  curtained  places  in  the  church  or  chapel,  wherein 
the  priest  stands,  outside  of  which  the  person  who  confesses 
kneels  with  head  covered,  and  repeats  his  sins,  and  receives 
the  admonitions  of  the  priest ;  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
individual  be  known  personally  to  the  priest;  all  that  the 
priest  is  required  to  do,  is  to  hear  and  absolve  as  he  may 
deem  proper.  This  constitutes  one  great  hold  which  the 
priesthood  have  upon  the  people,  and  they  are  willing  to 
accept  from  them  all  advice  upon  matters  of  conscience. 
The  priests  wear  robes  and  vestments  while  officiating  in 
the  church,  and  these  are  sometimes  very  elaborately  em 
broidered  and  enriched  by  lace  and  other  materials.  This 
sect  denounces  as  heretics  all  who  do  not  believe  in  their 
teachings,  and  they  believe  that  none  can  be  saved  outside 
of  their  church,  excepting  by  a  special  providence  of  God, 
in  cases  of  ignorance  of  their  doctrines. 

The  Bible  is  interpreted  by  their  priests  for  the  people, 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  237 

and  Roman  Catholics  are  said  to  be  opposed  to  the  free 
schools  of  America,  because  the  Bible  is  permitted  to  be 
read  and  taught  in  these  schools.  They  exclude  it  from 
their  own  schools,  as  a  whole,  believing  it  to  be  wrong  to 
place  it  in  the  hands  of  those  who  may  be  led  to  interpret 
it  for  themselves.  That  portion  of  it  which  they  allow  for 
general  use  contains  only  the  IsTew  Testament ;  the  Old 
Testament  being  given  in  the  form  of  a  Bible  History 
which  has  been  compiled  for  this  purpose.  This  question 
has  caused  a  great  deal  of  discussion  in  the  political  world, 
as  free  schools  are  a  government  institution,  and  it  has 
influenced  many  political  elections  throughout  the  country, 
when  it  has  been  made  a  test  question  whether  the  candi 
date  under  consideration  would  vote  for  or  against  free 
schools.  This  plan  of  interpreting  the  Bible  is  another 
bond  of  union  for  Romanists,  all  being  made  to  adopt  the 
interpretation  of  this  church  before  becoming  a  member 
of  the  same ;  while  Protestants  differ  and  are  divided  into 
sects,  just  as  men  will  naturally  differ  on  any  subject  they 
are  allowed  to  discuss  freely.  While  the  Koman  Catholics 
are  all  united  under  one  head,  there  is,  however,  a  secret 
society  among  them  known  as  Jesuits,  whose  special  ob 
ject  is  for  its  propagation.  It  was  this  society,  as  our 
readers  will  remember,  who  established  themselves  in 
Japan  in  1549,  but  who  were  destroyed  or  driven  from  the 
Empire  in  1595.  This  sect  had,  in  1870,  seven  archbishops  ; 
forty-five  bishops ;  seven  vicars-apostolic;  thirty-five  hun 
dred  and  five  priests,  and,  according  to  the  best  authorities, 
three  millions  three  hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand 
members. 

The  most  devoted  people  in  this  denomination  think  it  in- 


238  LIFE   AND   RESOUECES   IN   AMERICA. 

cumbent  upon  them  to  make  certain  sacrifices  of  time  and 
service,  and  voluntarily  go  into  entire  seclusion  from  the 
world.  For  this  object  they  have  institutions  called  nun 
neries,  to  which  the  women  retire  and  take  certain  vows,  and 
live  within  their  enclosures  during  the  remainder  of  their 
lives ;  of  course,  these  women  never  marry.  There  are  also 
monasteries  where  the  men  retire  from  the  world  and  also 
take  the  vow  of  celibacy,  which  means  never  to  marry ;  they 
devote  themselves,  generally,  to  teaching  young  men,  and 
there  is  a  college  for  that  purpose  connected  with  most  of 
these  institutions ;  as  there  are  also  female  academies  con 
nected  with  the  nunneries. 

Another  class  of  religious  people  who  occupy  a  position 
peculiar  to  themselves,  are  the  Jews  or  Israelites,  whose  his 
tory  is  identified  with  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  more 
replete  with  incidents  than  any  other.  Although  unable  to 
give  the  extent  of  their  population  in  America,  we  may 
safely  state  that  they  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  city 
and  town  in  the  country,  and  they  claim  to  have  about  two 
hundred  congregations.  Though  standing  alone  in  their 
religious  beliefs,  they  have  the  credit  of  manifesting  great 
energy  in  prosecuting  works  of  charity  in  behalf  of  the  sick, 
the  needy,  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of  their  own  people. 
A  large  proportion  of  them  are  wedded  to  the  doctrines  of 
their  illustrious  father,  the  patriarch  Abraham,  with  whom 
the  recognition  of  One  Supreme  Being  originated,  and  hap 
been  cherished  to  the  present  day  by  Bible  believers.  A 
party  has  sprung  up  among  them,  of  late  years,  called  the 
Reformed  or  Christian  Jews,  and  they  advocate  a  religion 
of  progress,  in  which  they  have  been  somewhat  successful. 
They  never  intermarry  with  people  not  of  their  own  race, 


EELIGIOUS   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.  239 

and  from  time  immemorial  have  been  noted  for  their  sagac 
ity  in  accumulating  money.  Their  history,  which  occupies 
a  large  space  in  the  Bible,  is  considered  the  most  wonderful 
in  the  annals  of  religion  throughout  the  world. 

Of  all  the  rites  or  ceremonies  which  are  practised  by  the 
Jews,  the  most  strict  and  solemn  is  that  which  annually 
occurs  on  what  they  call  the  Day  of  Atonement.  It  is 
marked  by  a  rigid  fast,  which  commences  at  sunset  on  one 
evening,  and  ends  with  sunset  on  the  following  day,  during 
which  time  the  more  faithful  of  the  sect  will  not  permit  a 
morsel  of  food  or  water  to  pass  their  lips.  During  all  this 
period  they  offer  up  prayers,  clad  in  such  garments  as  are 
used  in  burying  the  dead ;  and  until  the  close  of  this  spe 
cial  season  for  religious  worship  their  synagogues  are 
crowded  with  worshippers,  who,  like  the  Quakers,  invariably 
wear  their  hats  in  all  public  assemblies. 

In  looking  at  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  the  ag 
gregate,  it  has  been  estimated  that  about  seven-eighths  of 
them  are  either  allied  to  the  Protestants,  have  no  religion 
at  all,  or  come  under  the  head  of  miscellaneous  sects,  while 
the  remainder  are  Roman  Catholics.  Nearly  all  the  de 
nominations  are  amply  supplied  with  theological  institutions, 
which  number  more  than  one  hundred,  and  those  who  are 
educated  in  them  are  always  expected  to  become  the  advo 
cates  of  the  doctrines  in  which  they  have  been  instructed. 
As  to  the  benevolent  institutions  for  the  relief  of  suffering 
humanity,  they  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  the  individual 
States,  and  are  chiefly  supported  by  the  Protestant  sects,  or 
by  the  people,  through  their  legislatures.  In  their  internal 
arrangements  all  these  asylums  and  hospitals  are  in  keeping 
with  the  advanced  improvements  of  the  age.  By  means  of 


240  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   IX   AMERICA. 

raised  letters  the  blind  are  enabled  to  read  ;  by  wise  treat 
ment  the  insane  are  made  docile,  and  contented  with  their 
unhappy  condition ;  and  by  personal  kindness  and  sign- 
alphabets  the  deaf  and  the  dumb  are  instructed  and  made 
to  forget  their  misfortunes.  The  total  number  of  these  un 
fortunates  in  the  United  States  is  nearly  one  hundred  thou 
sand. 

To  give  an  account  of  the  hospitals,  the  homes  for  the 
orphan  and  widow,  and  other  charitable  institutions  of  the 
country,  would  occupy  more  space  than  can  be  afforded  in 
this  work,  but  we  can  state  that  they  are  very  numerous, 
liberally  endowed,  and  as  efficiently  conducted  as  any  in  the 
world ;  and  when  necessary,  people  from  every  clime  can 
find  a  convenient  place  where  they  may  be  cared  for, 
whether  their  troubles  are  the  result  of  poverty,  of  acci 
dents,  of  sickness,  or  any  other  misfortunes. 

Of  all  the  visible  evidences  of  prosperity  among  the 
religious  people  of  America,  the  most  impressive  and  exten 
sive  are  the  churches  or  temples  of  Christian  worship. 
Not  only  are  they  to  be  found  on  almost  every  street  in 
the  larger  cities,  but  they  are  the  leading  architectural 
attractions  in  the  towns  and  villages  of  the  whole  country. 
Bricks  and  every  variety  of  stone  are  employed  in  their 
construction ;  every  school  of  architecture  is  called  upon 
to  beautify  them  with  their  designs ;  and  the  money  ex 
pended  in  building  them  ranges  from  ten  or  twenty  thou 
sand  to  one  or  two  millions  of  dollars.  The  current 
expenses  of  these  churches  are  paid  by  voluntary  sub 
scription,  or  with  the  money  received  through  the  renting 
or  sale  of  pews  or  seats. 

The  ministers  who  preside  over  these  churches,  excepting 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  241 

the  Roman  Catholics,  who  are  supported  in  a  different 
manner,  receive  by  way  of  compensation  from  five  hundred 
to  ten  thousand  dollars,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the 
congregations.  These  churches  are  open  for  public  wor 
ship  twice  on  every  Sunday,  and  occasionally  on  week 
days ;  are  never  used  for  mere  secular  purposes;  and 
in  many  of  them,  elaborate  music,  consisting  of  sing 
ing  combined  with  magnificent  organs,  forms  an  import 
ant  part  of  the  services.  It  is  from  these  churches,  more 
over,  that  the  money  goes  forth  for  the  support  of  chari 
table  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  for  spreading  the 
religion  of  the  Bible,  by  means  of  missionaries,  throughout 
the  world.  There  is  also  attached  to  most  of  these  congre 
gations  what  are  called  Sunday  Schools,  in  which  children, 
both  rich  and  poor,  are  instructed  in  the  ways  of  Christian 
ity.  While  it  is  true,  as  we  have  already  stated,  that  there 
is  no  State  religion  in  America,  it  is  also  true,  however, 
that  the  religious  denominations  of  the  country  occasion 
ally  exercise  a  decided  influence  in  public  affairs  ;  and 
when  a  man  of  mark  puts  himself  forward  as  a  candidate 
for  an  elective  office,  his  chances  of  success  very  frequently 
turn  upon  the  nature  of  his  religious  belief,  and  hence  we 
find  a  perpetual  warfare  going  on  in  America  between  the 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics,  which  is  anything  but 
creditable  to  the  parties,  an  honor  to  the  country,  or  a 
blessing  to  the  world. 

Although  only  indirectly  connected  with  the  foregoing 
subject,  we  deem  it  quite  proper  to  append  in  this  place  a 
few  words  in  regard  to  the  noted  secret  societies  known 
as  Free-Masons  and  Odd-Fellows.  The  first,  which  is 
identified  with  the  history  of  architecture,  is  claimed  to 

11 


242  LIFE  A:NT>  RESOURCES  i^  AMERICA. 

have  originated  in  the  religious  mysteries  of  the  ancient 
world — and  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  Members  of  the 
fraternity  are  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  but  it  is 
perhaps  more  flourishing  in  the  United  States  than  else 
where.  They  have  what  they  call  a  Grand  Lodge  in  all 
the  States  of  the  Union,  and  many  of  the  most  distin 
guished  men  in  this  country  have  been  members  of  the 
Order.  Their  highest  officer  is  called  a  Royal  Arch 
Mason :  in  the  exercise  of  charity,  particularly  towards 
their  fellow-members,  they  are  eminently  liberal ;  and 
their  houses,  which  are  called  temples,  are  numerous,  and 
often  very  handsome  ;  and  their  publications  are  highly 
respectable,  if  not  abundant. 

The  fraternity  known  as  Odd-Fellows  bears  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  Free-Masons,  traces  its  origin  to  the 
fourth  century,  and  has,  until  recently,  been  confined  to 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  in  which  latter  coun 
try  it  is  exceedingly  prosperous.  Like  the  Free-Masons, 
they  have  their  Lodges  and  many  officers,  and  it  is  said 
that  in  the  last  forty  years  they  have  expended  for  chari 
table  purposes  not  less  than  fifteen  millions  of  dollars.  The 
relief  furnished  to  its  members  during  sickness,  and  to 
their  families  after  death,  is  accorded  to  them  as  a  right. 
Connected,  with  this  Order  is  an  institution  which  they  call 
the  Grand  Encampment,  whose  members  are  known  as 
patriarchs  and  priests,  and  which  consists  of  past  officers  of 
the  several  subordinate  Encampments.  The  State  Grand 
Lodges  consist  of  the  past  officers  of  the  subordinate 
Lodges ;  and  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  United  States, 
which  is  the  highest  body  of  the  Order  in  this  country,  is 
formed  of  Representatives  elected  by  the  several  State 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  243 

Grand  Lodges.  Some  years  ago,  by  the  action  of  the 
present  Yice-President  of  the  United  States,  Schuyler  Col- 
fax  (who  is  a  distinguished  member  of  this  Order),  women 
were  admitted  to  a  partial  fellowship  in  it ;  and  since 
then,  at  stated  periods,  the  different  subordinate  Lodges 
confer  upon  such  wives  and  widows  of  Odd-Fellows 
who  may  desire  it,  what  is  termed  the  "  Degree  of 
Rebecca." 

But  there  is  one  feature  connected  with  religion  in 
America  which  is  peculiar  to  this  country,  and  must  not 
be  forgotten  in  this  summary.  We  allude  to  the  Young 
Merfs  Christian  Associations.  There  are  one  thousand  of 
these  societies  in  the  United  States,  and  they  are  conduct 
ed  by  an  active  element  in  the  various  churches,  and 
without  any  denominational  distinctions.  They  are  sup 
ported  by  the  free-will  contributions  on  the  part  of  their 
members,  and  their  buildings,  in  the  larger  cities,  are  fre 
quently  quite  splendid  and  beautiful.  They  are  generally 
so  arranged  as  to  afford,  under  one  roof,  a  library  of  the 
best  books,  a  Reading-Room,  supplied  with  the  leading 
newspapers  and  periodicals  of  the  day,  a  General  Receiv 
ing-Room,  where  religious  services  are  held  for  those  who 
wish  to  attend  them,  and  a  Lecture-Room,  where  able  men 
are  invited  to  lecture.  To  all  of  these  privileges,  except 
ing  the  lectures,  the  public  are  admitted  without  any 
charge,  and  the  good  which  these  associations  have  already 
accomplished,  in  elevating  the  tone  of  society,  is  considered 
in  the  light  of  a  national  blessing. 

It  is  proper,  before  concluding  this  chapter,  that  the 
writer  should  submit  a  few  particulars  respecting  its 
arrangement,  which  are  somewhat  personal  to  himself. 


244  LIFE    AND   RESOURCES    IN   AMERICA. 

After  his  return  to  Japan  from  Europe,  some  years  ago, 
he  was  frequently  questioned  by  his  countrymen  as  to  his 
opinions  about  the  Christian  religion.  In  his  replies,  he 
took  the  ground,  that,  so  far  as  he  could  understand  it,  the 
Bible  was  a  good  and  a  wise  book,  but  that  it  contained 
many  things  he  did  not  understand.  That  while  the  peo 
ple  who  called  themselves  Christians  claimed  to  have  the 
only  true  religion,  and  pretended  to  be  better  than  all  other 
men,  they  did  not,  in  that  particular,  diifer  from  the 
Chinese  or  Japanese,  who  assert  the  same  claims  for  their 
religions.  He  thought  it  advisable  that  those  who  desire 
to  form  any  opinion  on  Christianity,  should  acquaint  them 
selves  with  it  by  close  and  attentive  study,  and  then  to 
judge  for  themselves.  Hence,  in  the  present  chapter  his 
desire  has  been  simply  to  give  facts,  and  in  the  plainest 
possible  terms.  Whatever  may  be  his  private  opinions 
on  matters  of  such  great  importance,  he  has  not  thought 
it  proper  for  him  either  to  oppose  or  advocate  them.  Ac 
cording  to  his  observations,  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
American  people  are  known  by  the  name  of  Christians, 
and  yet  a  great  many  things  are  said  and  done  by  them 
which  do  not  accord  with  the  principles  of  their  own 
Bible ;  but,  is  not  this  true  of  every  nation  upon  the 
earth  ?  Where  men  think  that  they  know  everything,  and 
boast  of  their  superior  wisdom,  the  presumption  is  that 
they  have  yet  much  to  learn ;  and  all  human  experience, 
as  well  as  the  Bible  of  the  Christians,  inculcates  the  idea 
that  before  men  can  be  wise  and  good,  they  must  be  hum 
ble.  It  would  be  a  very  wonderful  thing,  should  the  time 
ever  arrive,  when  the  so-called  Christians,  who  profess  the 
faith,  but  do  not  live  up  to  it,  shall  cease  to  boast  of  the 


EELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  245 

superiority  of  their  religion,  and  regard  themselves  as 
worse  than  all  other  people,  because  of  their  guilt  in  mak 
ing  insincere  professions.  True  Christianity  may  not  be 
considered  as  identical  with  the  general  sense  of  civiliza 
tion — in  which  the  good  and  the  bad  participate, — but  true 
philosophy  would  seem  to  teach  that  it  should  be  a  leading 
element  in  such  civilization. 


LIFE  IN-  THE  FACTORIES. 


THE  term  factory,  as  employed  in  America,  means  a 
place  where  men  and  women  are  engaged  in  fabricating 
goods.  In  this  paper  it  is  proposed  to  speak  of  those 
establishments,  especially,  where  the  staples  of  cotton  and 
wool  are  turned  into  the  woven  fabrics  commonly  known 
as  calicoes,  sheetings,  carpetings,  cloths  made  of  both  mate 
rials,  as  well  as  hosiery  and  worsted  goods,  blankets, 
shawls,  table-covers,  felted  cloths,  and  bed-spreads. 

The  largest  amount  of  cotton  ever  produced  in  this 
country  in  one  year  was  in  1860,  the  year  before  the  late 
rebellion,  when  the  figures  reached  4,669,770  bales,  each 
bale  weighing  465  pounds;  and  the  factories  numbered 
1,091.  According  to  the  last  published  statistics,  the  sup 
ply  of  cotton  reached  only  2,500,000  bales;  the  number  of 
cotton-mills  or  factories  is  831,  of  which  444  are  in  N~ew 
England,  86  in  the  Southern  States,  220  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  the  balance  in  the  Western  States.  The  total 
value  of  the  cotton  crop  was  $270,000,000,  and  it  is  said 
that  the  people  producing  it  sold  and  exported  the  whole 
of  it,  excepting  the  value  of  $10,000,000  kept  for  home 
consumption. 

But,  however  we  may  arrange  the  cotton  statistics  of 
America,  the  fact  remains  that  its  cotton  manufactures, 
though  still  very  large,  have  declined  of  late  years,  and 
are  greatly  excelled  by  those  of  England. 


LIFE   IK   THE    FACTORIES.  247 

The  annual  production  of  wool  in  the  United  States  is 
estimated  at  about  $100,000,000,  while  that  of  Great 
Britain,  in  1868,  was,  in  pounds,  260,000,000;  Germany, 
200,000,000;  France,  123,000,000;  Russia  in  Europe,  125,- 
000,000;  Spain,  Italy,  and  Portugal,  119,000,000;  Austria, 
South  America,  and  South  Africa,  157,000,000;  British 
North  America,  12,000,000;  North  Africa,  49,000,000; 
and  Asia,  470,000,000 ;  making  the  aggregate  of  wool  pro 
duced  in  the  world,  1,610,000,000  pounds,  or  one  pound 
and  a  quarter  to  each  inhabitant  on  the  globe — on  the  sup 
position  that  the  total  population  is  1,285,000,000.  As  is 
the  case  with  cotton,  the  most  numerous  woolen  factories 
of  America  are  found  in  New  England.  With  these  few 
particulars  in  view,  we  may  proceed  to  speak  of  the  pecu 
liarities  of  factory-life  in  the  United  States,  which,  of 
course,  must  be  done  in  very  general  terms. 

Wherever,  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  country,  is  to 
be  found  the  best  supply  of  water,  suitable  for  running 
machinery,  there  do  the  manufacturing  establishments 
mostly  congregate.  And  it  is  because  New  England  is 
rocky  and  not  well  suited  to  agriculture,  and  also  because 
its  rivers  are  numerous  and  well  adapted  for  mills,  that  its 
manufactures  have  become  especially  celebrated.  The  vil 
lages  which  have  sprung  up  out  of  this  kind  of  business 
are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  land ;  and  while  some 
of  them  consist  only  of  the  houses  collected  around  one 
factory,  others  contain  a  number  of  factories,  and  are  pro 
portionally  large.  In  one  place  the  ownership  may  be 
vested  in  one  man ;  at  another  place  in  an  organized  com 
pany  of  men;  and  then  again,  a  single  man  or  family  may 
be  the  proprietor  of  several  factories,  employing  thousands 


248  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

of  hands  to  carry  them  on,  and  requiring  millions  of  money 
for  their  support.  In  this  connection,  a  few  such  men  as 
Amos  and  Abbot  Lawrence  and  William  Sprague  have 
acquired  national  reputations.  In  many  instances  the 
small  villages  alluded  to  are  located  in  the  midst  of  beau 
tiful  scenery,  and  the  necessary  surroundings  of  the  mills, 
which  give  them  existence,  are  pleasant  little  churches, 
comfortable  school-houses,  shops  for  the  sale  of  household 
merchandise,  and  appropriate  houses  for  the  shelter  of  the 
operatives.  Men,  women,  and  children  are  all  employed 
in  these  factories,  and,  generally  speaking,  they  absorb  all 
the  laboring  population  to  be  found  in  the  country  imme 
diately  surrounding  them,  as  well  as  many  persons  from 
abroad.  The  idea  of  strict  discipline  is  recognized  and 
carried  out,  from  the  overseer  down  to  the  humblest  work 
man,  and  it  is  in  these  small  villages  that  a  greater  amount 
of  comfort  is  enjoyed  by  the  persons  employed  than  in  the 
larger  manufacturing  cities.  Of  course,  the  facilities  for 
obtaining  the  raw  materials  of  cotton  and  wool,  and  for 
transporting  the  manufactured  goods  to  market,  are  com 
mensurate  with  the  necessities  of  the  case ;  and  the  estab 
lishments  where  the  goods  are  sold  are  generally  located 
in  the  larger  cities. 

But  a  truly  comprehensive  idea  of  factory-life  in  America 
cannot  be  had  without  considering  its  character  as  we  find 
it  in  the  larger  towns  or  cities;  and  no  better  example  can 
be  selected  for  that  purpose  than  the  city  of  Lowell,  in 
Massachusetts.  What  may  be  said  of  this  place  is  also 
true,  only  in  a  different  degree,  of  all  the  factory-towns 
throughout  the  country,  and  especially  such  places  as 
Lawrence,  Providence,  Norwich,  and  Worcester;  and  it 


LIFE    IX    THE    FACTOKIES.  249 

may  safely  be  said,  that  the  aggregate  number  of  persons  who 
obtain  their  living  by  means  of  the  cotton  and  woolen  facto 
ries  of  the  country,  is  not  less  than  three  hundred  thousand. 
The  growth  and  prosperity  of  Lowell,  as  a  manufacturing 
town,  are  without  any  parallel  in  America.  It  lies  on  the 
river  Merrimac,  and  the  water-power  is  formed  by  dams 
that  are  thirty  feet  high.  It  has  not  less  than  fifteen 
manufacturing  corporations,  with  about  sixty  mills,  which 
employ  a  capital  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  and  support 
about  fifteen  thousand  hands,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
close  of  the  year,  while  the  entire  population  of  the  city  is 
nearly  fifty  thousand.  All  the  mills  are  heated  by  steam 
and  lighted  by  gas.  The  wromen  who  work  in  them  far 
outnumber  the  men  ;  and  although,  a  few  years  ago,  much 
the  larger  proportion  of  these  were  native  Americans,  so 
great  a  change  has  taken  place  in  this  particular,  that  the 
majority  are  now  foreigners,  and  chiefly  Irish.  The  men  are 
without  ambition,  and  the  women  work  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  making  money,  and  not  because  they  like  the  employ 
ment.  Widows  are  there,  toiling  for  the  education  of  their 
children ;  and  daughters  are  there,  hoarding  up  their 
wages  to  pay  the  debts  of  improvident  fathers.  The  labor 
of  the  women  is  essentially  on  an  equality  with  that  of  the 
men ;  but  while  the  former  receive  from  two  to  three 
dollars  per  wTeek,  in  addition  to  their  board,  the  latter 
receive  from  four  to  six  dollars  for  the  same  period.  The 
time  for  labor  ranges  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  per  day, 
and  extra  sets  of  hands  are  often  employed  for  night-work. 
The  hands  are  summoned  to  their  work  by  the  ringing  of 
bells;  a  brief  time  only  is  allowed  for  meals ;  and  the  only 
opportunities  which  the  operatives  have  for  recreation  or 


250  LIFE  AKD  RESOURCES  IK  AMERICA. 

study  are  at  night,  when  worn  out  with  the  fatigue  engen 
dered  by  the  jar  and  whirl  of  the  machinery  in  the  mills. 
When  the  American  element  prevailed  in  these  factories, 
an  earnest  effort  was  made  to  elevate  the  minds  of  the 
thousands  of  girls  employed,  and  for  a  time  these  efforts 
were  successful.  A  monthly  periodical  was  established, 
called  the  "  Lowell  Offering,"  which  was  supported  en 
tirely  by  the  productions  of  females  working  in  the  mills, 
and  in  which  many  valuable  papers  were  published.  For 
a  time  this  magazine  was  very  successful,  and  excited  much 
wonder  and  comment  among  the  factory-people  of  New 
England,  but  the  novelty  soon  wore  off,  and  the  work  was 
suspended.  A  leading  American  writer,  while  mourning 
over  this  fact,  and  also  over  the  fact  that  there  was  so 
little  comfort  to  be  found  in  these  large  manufacturing 
towns,  said,  that  the  patron-saint  of  Lowell  was  Work  • 
that  the  "Factory  Girls"  might  be  counted  by  the 
acre;  that  the  motto  over  the  gateways  should  be, 
"  Work  or  Die ;"  and  that  the  fifty  factories  in  the 
city  were  each  larger  and  more  imposing  than  the 
temples  of  worship  in  Japan  and  China.  In  the  largest  of 
these  mills  from  one  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  women  or 
girls  are  constantly  employed,  and  from  three  hundred  to 
five  hundred  men.  Each  manufacturing  company  owns 
from  twenty  to  thirty  dwellings,  which  are  leased  to 
responsible  persons  as  boarding-houses,  for  the  exclusive 
benefit  of  the  hands  employed  in  the  factories.  These 
dwellings  are  large  enough  to  accommodate  from  forty  to 
fifty  inmates,  and  the  sexes  are  kept  entirely  separate. 
The  corporations  also  provide  hospitals  in  which  the  work 
people  find  attendance  in  sickness,  for  which,  if  they  be 


LIFE    IN   THE    FACTORIES.  *0 1 

unable  to  pay,  the  employers  are  responsible.  While  it  is 
true  that  the  young  people  who  are  obliged  to  work  in  the 
factories  have  little  or  no  time  to  cultivate  their  minds,  the 
younger  children  of  the  married  people  have  every  facility 
afforded  them  to  obtain  knowledge ;  the  common-schools 
of  the  city  are  numerous,  well  conducted,  and  chiefly  under 
the  direction  of  competent  female  teachers.  There  is  also 
a  good  library  in  the  city,  where  all  who  are  fond  of  read 
ing,  no  matter  how  poor,  can  be  furnished  with  useful  and 
entertaining  books  :  and  the  religious  privileges  enjoyed  by 
all,  by  means  of  numerous  churches,  and  the  weekly  day  of 
rest,  which  is  called  Sunday,  are  all  that  could  be  desired. 
But  notwithstanding  these  many  advantages,  recent  writers 
on  this  subject  have  declared  that  the  extinction  of  the 
educated  American  operative  has  become  an  accomplished 
fact,  and  the  mills  of  Lowell,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Atlan 
tic  States  generally,  are  now  worked,  as  already  stated,  by 
immigrants  from  Europe — from  Ireland,  Wales,  and  Ger 
many.  But  these,  as  they  grow  in  intelligence,  and  begin 
to  go  westward,  like  their  predecessors,  demand  higher 
wages,  shorter  hours  for  work,  and  more  freedom.  They 
have  learned  the  European  lesson  of  fighting  employers  by 
combinations  ;  and,  altogether,  the  problem  has  become  so 
confused  that  the  manufacturers  are  beginning  to  look  for 
relief  to  the  Chinese,  a  number  of  whom  have  already  been 
induced  to  enter  the  factories  of  New  England.  American 
girls  are  said  to  be  growing  dissatisfied  with  the  restraints 
of  factory-life,  where  they  have  to  compete  with  the  more 
rugged  and  experienced  women  from  European  countries; 
hence  they  go  to  the  larger  cities,  and  become  domestic 
servants  ;  but  that  kind  of  employment  they  find  irksome, 


252  LIFE    AKD    RESOURCES   IK   AMERICA. 

and  so  they  make  another  effort  to  succeed  according  to 
their  wishes,  and  emigrate,  as  best  they  can,,  to  the  western 
States. 

In. the  further  elucidation  of  this  subject,  it  is  proper 
that  we  should  consider  the  opinions  of  the  manufacturers 
themselves.  They  assert  that  the  opprobrious  epithet  of 
"white  slavery,"  which  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the 
labor  in  the  New  England  factories,  is  wholly  unwarranted. 
They  claim  to  have  purged  it  of  every  element  of  feudal 
ism  ;  that  they  have  avoided  the  English  plan  of  employ 
ing  whole  families  in  the  mill,  often  including  children,  who 
should  have  been  at  school, — the  families  being  kept  in  a 
state  of  absolute  dependence  upon  the  mill,  and  exposed  to 
suffering  whenever  business  was  not  prosperous.  They 
claim  also  to  have  abolished  the  custom  of  payment  by 
orders  on  a  factory-store,  which  tended  to  involve  the  work 
people  in  debt,  and  they  instituted  the  practice  of  weekly 
payment  of  wages  in  money ;  and  that  they  have  done  all 
that  could  be  done,  to  secure  the  independence  as  well  as 
comfort  of  the  American  operatives. 

And  here,  it  occurs  to  us,  we  may  furnish  a  further  illus 
tration  of  factory-life  in  America  by  submitting  a  brief 
description  of  what  may  be  termed  a  model  New  England 
establishment,  as  follows  :  It  is  located  in  the  city  of  Law 
rence  ;  is  a  joint-stock  company,  with  150  stockholders 
and  9  directors  ;  has  100,000  spindles;  and  has  a  capital 
of  $2,500,000,  while  its  property  is  valued  at  a  consider 
able  advance  on  that  sum.  The  manufactured  goods, 
consisting  chiefly  of  fabrics  for  the  wear  of  women,  made 
both  of  cotton  a.id  wool,  which  are  annually  sold, 
amounting  to  about  $7,500,000 ;  and  the  total  dividends 


LIFE    IK   THE   FACTORIES.  253 

declared,  during   the   last  twelve   years,    was   more   than 
$3,000,000. 

The  total  number  of  work-people  employed  in  this  factory 
is  3,600,  of  whom  the  men  number  1,680  ;  women,  1,510  ; 
boys  between  ten  and  twelve  years  of  age,  80,  and 
between  twelve  and  eighteen,  140 ;  girls  between  ten 
and  twelve,  40,  and  between  twelve  and  eighteen,  150. 
The  lowest  weekly  wages,  according  to  gold  rates,  are  as 
follows:  for  men,  $6.75;  women,  $2.48;  boys,  $2.85;  and 
young  girls,  $1.82  ;  while  spinners,  weavers,  and  a  few 
others,  receive  according  to  the  quantity  of  goods  pro 
duced,  and  some  of  them  large  wages.  Very  many  of  the 
operatives  are  frugal  with  their  money,  and  have  invested 
their  earnings  in  the  stock  of  the  company  itself,  deposited 
it  in  Savings  Banks,  or  purchased  the  bonds  of  the  General 
Government ;  some  of  them  have  been  so  successful  as  to 
be  elected  members  of  the  City  Government ;  and  not  a 
few  are  the  owners  of  comfortable  houses.  Where  men  are 
obliged  to  hire  houses,  they  pay  only  one-eighth  of  their 
wages  for  rent ;  and  for  the  comfort  and  accommodation 
of  the  unmarried  females  a  large  building  has  been  erected, 
holding  not  less  than  eight  hundred  persons,  who  pay  for 
food,  lights,  and  washing,  only  one-third  of  their  regular 
wages.  Connected  with  the  establishment  is  what  they 
call  a  "  Relief  Society,"  organized  for  the  care  and  support 
of  the  sick  among  the  work-people.  Every  possible  atten 
tion  is  paid  both  to  the  morals  and  intellectual  culture  of 
the  operatives.  No  men  are  employed  who  are  intemperate 
in  their  habits,  and  the  use  of  profane  language  and  the  ill- 
treatment  of  subordinates  strictly  prohibited.  All  females 
are  compelled  to  be  at  their  lodgings  by  ten  o'clock  at 


254  LIFE    AKD    RESOUKCES    1^   AMERICA. 

night,  and  none  of  them  are  permitted  to  attend  improper 
places  of  resort.  No  child  under  ten  years  of  age,  accord 
ing  to  law,  is  allowed  to  work  in  the  factory,  and  all  the 
boys  and  girls  must  be  furnished  with  from  eleven  to  six 
teen  weeks  of  schooling,  in  each  year,  and  all  the  schools 
are  paid  for  by  the  company.  Of  the  persons  employed,  less 
than  fifty  in  every  thousand  are  unable  to  read,  and  for  the 
benefit  of  all  there  is  a  well-conducted  library,  with  pleas 
ant  reading-rooms  for  both  sexes,  and  every  facility  is 
afforded  for  attending  lectures,  and  places  of  profitable 
amusement.  A  week's  labor  in  this  establishment  will 
produce  more  yards  of  cloth  than  is  produced  in  any 
European  mill,  but  it  is  claimed  that  a  yard  of  cloth  costs 
less  in  Europe,  which  latter  point,  however,  is  not  con 
ceded  by  the  Americans. 

But  let  us  now  look  for  a  moment  at  some  of  the  local 
results  of  the  cotton  and  woolen  manufactures  of  recent 
times.  It  has  been  said,  that  where  one  person,  a  century 
ao^o,  consumed  one  yard  of  woven  goods,  the  consumption, 
per  head,  has  since  risen  to  about  twenty-six  yards.  This 
vast  difference  in  the  comforts  of  every  family,  by  the  abil 
ity  which  they  now  possess  of  easily  acquiring  warm  and 
healthful  clothing,  is  a  clear  gain  to  all  society,  and  to 
every  individual  as  a  portion  of  society.  It  is  more  espe 
cially  a  gain,  they  say,  to  the  females  and  the  children  of 
families,  whose  condition  is  always  degraded  when  cloth 
ing  is  scanty.  The  power  of  procuring  cheap  clothing  for 
themselves  and  for  their  children,  has  a  tendency  to  raise 
the  condition  of  females  more  than  any  other  addition  to 
their  stock  of  comfort.  It  cultivates  habits  of  cleanliness 
and  decency,  which  are  considered,  in  America,  great  aids 


LIFE    IN   THE    FACTORIES.  255 

to  virtue,  if  not  actual  virtues  themselves.  There  is  little 
self-respect  amid  dirt  and  rags,  according  to  the  American 
belief,  and  without  self-respect  there  can  be  no  foundation 
for  those  qualities  which  mostly  contribute  to  the  good  of 
society.  The  power  of  procuring  useful  clothing  at  a 
cheap  price  has  tended  to  raise  the  condition  of  women  in 
America,  and  the  influence  of  the  condition  of  women  upon 
the  welfare  of  a  community  can  never  be  too  highly  esti 
mated.  If  there  be  one  thing  more  remarkable  than 
another  in  the  visible  condition  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  the  universality  of  good  clothing.  The  dis 
tinction  between  the  rich  man  and  the  artisan,  or  between 
the  lady  and  her  maid,  is  oftentimes  almost  imperceptible. 
Perhaps  the  absence  of  mere  finery,  and  the  taste  which 
accompanies  good  education,  constitute  the  chief  difference 
in  the  dress  of  various  ranks ;  and  this  feature  of  the  pres 
ent  time  is  a  part  of  the  social  history  of  America. 

The  history  of  the  cotton  and  woolen  manufactures  has 
occupied  the  minds  of  many  of  the  ablest  men  in  the 
world,  and  their  developments  are  of  vital  interest  to  the 
wrhole  human  family.  The  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving 
were  slowly  developed  from  the  time  of  the  simple  distaff, 
and  it  was  just  as  they  had  reached  something  like  com 
pletion,  that  an  American,  named  Eli  Whitney,  invented 
the  cotton-gin,  in  1793,  which  at  once  gave  anew  character 
and  impulse  to  the  growth,  as  well  as  the  manufacture, 
of  cotton.  This  invention  was  the  final  step,  by  which  the 
whole  process  of  manufacturing  cotton  into  cloth  was 
effected  by  machinery;  and  just  about  that  time,  steam 
was  introduced  to  the  world  as  an  agent  of  limitless  power, 
in  driving  machinery  of  every  kind;  new  channels  of 


256  LIFE   AND   KESOUKCES    IK   AMERICA. 

internal  communication  were  opened  between  the  different 
parts  of  the  \vorld ;  chemistry  furnished  the  means  for 
rapidly  bleaching  the  fabrics  produced  from  cotton ;  and 
all  the  resources  of  science  and  skill,  of  invention  and 
industry,  seemed  combined  to  create  an  immensely  in 
creased  demand  for  the  raw  material  upon  which  all  these 
labors  were  to  be  expended.  And  if  something  like  this 
enterprise  can  be  transported  to  Japan,  what  may  we  not 
expect,  in  the  future,  from  that  Empire  ? 

There  are  many  wonderful  inventions  connected  with  the 
manufacture  of  cotton,  but  nothing  is  perhaps  more  astori- 
-ishing  than  the  rapidity  with  which  some  portions  of  the 
machinery  is  employed.  Notice  the  fact,  for  example,  that 
the  very  finest  thread  which  is  used  in  making  lace  is 
passed  through  the  strong  flame  of  a  lamp,  which  burns 
off  the  fibres,  without  burning  the  thread  itself.  The 
velocity  with  which  the  thread  moves  is  so  great,  that  the 
motion  cannot  be  perceived.  The  line  of  thread,  passing 
off  a  wheel  through  the  flame,  looks  as  if  it  were  perfectly  at 
rest ;  and  it  appears  a  miracle  that  it  is  not  burned.  The 
primary  object  of  the  extensive  and  complicated  machinery 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  has  been,  of  course, 
cheapness  of  production,  and  in  that  particular  the  advance, 
from  the  time  of  the  distaff,  has  been  wonderful,  and  suc 
cess  complete.  Nor  has  this  been  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  working  classes.  Ten  years  after  the  introduction  of 
the  machines,  the  people  employed  in  the  trade,  spinners 
and  weavers,  were  more  than  forty  times  as  numerous  as 
when  the  spinning  was  done  by  hand.  It  was  thought 
that  the  newly  discovered  power  might  supersede  human 
labor  altogether,  but  such  was  by  no  means  the  case.  It 


LIFE   IN  THE   FACTORIES.  257 

only  gave  a  new  direction  to  the  labor  that  had  previously 
been  employed  at  the  distaff  and  spindle ;  but  it  increased 
the  quantity  of  labor  altogether  employed  in  the  manu 
facture  of  cotton,  at  least  a  hundredfold.  What  is  here 
said  of  the  machines  for  manufacturing  cotton,  is  also  true 
of  those  employed  in  the  woolen,  the  silk,  and  the  linen 
manufactories,  and  to  the  uneducated  eye  and  understand 
ing  they  are  all  wonderful,  and  of  incalculable  value  to 
the  commercial  world. 

But  there  is  another  curious  machine  which  we  may, 
with  propriety,  mention  in  this  place,  and  that  is  one  for 
making  needles.  Hitherto  the  largest  number  of  needles 
used  in  America  were  made  in  England  ;  but  there  is  a 
machine  in  New  Haven  in  which  the  whole  process  is  per 
formed  without  the  manual  labor  of  a  single  person.  A 
coil  of  steel  wire  is  put  into  it ;  then  the  machine  cuts  it 
off  at  the  required  lengths,  punches  the  eyeholes,  counter 
sinks  the  eyes,  and  then  sharpens  the  needle,  when  it  drops 
out  a  perfected  thing.  They  are  also  arranged  and  put 
up  in  paper  by  another  machine ;  and  the  number  of 
needles  thus  manufactured  per  day  by  each  machine  is 
about  forty  thousand. 

But  before  dismissing  the  subject  under  consideration, 
we  would  submit  to  the  Japanese  reader  a  few  remarks  on 
the  art,  whose  object  is  merely  to  beautify  the  very  numer 
ous  fabrics  which  are  made  in  the  various  factories  already 
alluded  to, — the  art  of  printing  cloth  in  colors.  It  applies 
to  the  most  common  as  well  as  to  the  finest  productions  of 
the  loom ;  and  the  science  of  the  dyer,  the  beauty  of  his 
patterns,  and  the  perfection  of  his  machinery,  have  become 
universally  celebrated.  As  an  experienced  writer  has  said, 


258  LIFE   AND    RESOURCES    IX   AMERICA. 

there  is  a  striking,  although  natural  parallel,  between  print 
ing  a  piece  of  cloth  and  printing  the  sheets  of  a  book  or 
newspaper.  Block-printing  is  the  impress  of  the  pattern 
by  hand,  as  block-books  were  made  four  centuries  ago. 
There  are  no  block-books  now,  for  machinery  has  banished 
that  tedious  process.  But  block-printing  is  used  for  costly 
shawls  and  velvets,  which  require  to  have  many  colors  pro 
duced  by  repeated  impressions  from  blocks  covered  with 
different  colors.  Except  for  the  most  expensive  fabrics, 
however,  this  mode  is  superseded  by  block-printing  with  a 
press,  in  which  several  blocks  are  set  in  a  frame.  Then 
again  they  have  what  they  call  cylinder-printing,  which  re 
sembles  the  rapid  working  of  the  book-printing  machine, 
each  producing  with  great  cheapness.  As  the  pattern  has 
to  be  obtained  from  several  cylinders,  each  having  its  own 
color,  there  is  great  nicety  in  the  operation  ;  and  the  most 
beautiful  mechanism  is  necessary  for  feeding  the  cylinder 
with  color ;  moving  the  cloth  to  meet  the  revolving  cylin 
der;  and  giving  to  the  machine  its  power  of  impression. 
But  those  who  witness  this  operation  can  hardly  realize  the 
ultimate  effect  subsequently  obtained  by  the  process  of  dye 
ing.  Fast  colors  are  produced  by  the  use  in  the  patterns 
of  substances  called  mordants ;  which  may  be  colorless 
themselves,  but  receive  the  color  of  the  dye-bath,  which 
color  is  only  fixed  in  the  parts  touched  by  the  mordants, 
and  is  washed  out  from  the  parts  not  touched.  Other  pro 
cesses  are  also  employed,  which  enhance  the  beauty  of  the 
fabrics. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  chemist,  the  machinist,  the  de 
signer,  and  the  engraver,  set  the  calico-printing  works  in 
operation,  so  that  tne  carrying  on  of  this  complicated  busi- 


LIFE   IK  THE   FACTORIES.  259 

ness  can  only  be  profitably  done  on  a  large  scale.  Very 
numerous  also  are  the  employments  required  merely  to  pro 
duce  the  dyes  with  which  the  calico-printer  works.  The 
mineral,  vegetable,  and  even  the  animal  kingdom,  combine 
their  natural  productions  in  the  colors  of  a  lady's  dress  ; 
there  is  the  sulphur  from  Sicily,  salt  from  Austria  or  Turk's 
Island,  peculiar  woods  from  Brazil,  indigo  from  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  madder  from  France,  and  insects  from  Mexi 
co.  The  discoveries  of  science,  in  combination  with  expe 
rience  and  skill,  have  set  all  this  industry  in  motion,  and 
given  a  value  to  innumerable  productions  of  nature  which 
would  otherwise  be  useless  or  unemployed ;  and  they  also 
create  modes  of  cultivation  which  are  important  sources  of 
national  prosperity.  But  of  all  the  discoveries  of  chem 
istry,  in  this  connection,  was  that  of  chloride  of  lime,  which 
has  become  the  universal  bleaching  powder  of  modern  man 
ufactures.  What  was  formerly  the  work  of  eight  months, 
is  now  accomplished  in  an  hour  or  two, — so  that  a  bag  of 
raw,  dingy  cotton  may  now  be  converted  into  the  whitest 
cloth  within  the  space  of  a  single  month. 

As  an  appropriate  conclusion  to  the  foregoing  remarks, 
we  may  now  submit  a  few  general  facts  on  the  American 
Tariff  of  duties  on  imported  merchandise.  This  has  been 
the  means  on  which  the  Federal  Government  has  chiefly  de 
pended  for  its  support  ever  since  it  came  into  existence. 
It  has  also  been  amply  sufficient  for  affording  money  to  ex 
tend  its  territory,  carry  on  wars,  execute  treaties,  and  accu 
mulate  a  large  property  in  lands,  buildings,  and  materials 
for  war.  From  the  earliest  times,  however,  the  people  have 
been  divided  into  two  great  political  parties  on  this  subject, 
and  yet  the  friends  and  opponents  of  the  measure  have  in 


260  LIFE   A^D   RESOURCES    Itf    AMERICA. 

the  main  admitted  that  it  is  the  best  means  for  raising  the 
public  revenue,  inasmuch  as  direct  taxation  has  been  thought 
impolitic  for  Federal  revenue.  There  is  a  large  class  of  peo 
ple,  moreover,  who  believe  that  the  levying  of  duties  is 
detrimental  to  the  agricultural  interests.  These,  and  numer 
ous  questions  of  a  similar  character,  have  long  occupied  the 
minds  of  the  leading  statesmen  of  the  United  States,  and 
they  remain  unsettled  to  this  day.  As  the  political  parties 
have  gained  ascendency,  so  have  the  tariff  rates  been 
changed  or  modified,  from  time  to  time ;  and  in  looking 
back  over  the  forty  years  prior  to  the  late  civil  war,  we  find 
that  the  rates  of  duty  have  varied  from  eighteen  to  forty- 
eight  per  centum,  and  that  the  largest  receipts  from  customs 
during  the  period  in  question  were  in  1854,  and  amounted 
to  $64,224,190,— when  the  free  imports  reached  $33, 285, 82 1 , 
and  the  dutiable  imports  $271,276,560.  The  total  imporis 
at  the  port  of  New  York,  in  1870,  amounted  to  $315,200,- 
022,  and  the  exports  to  $254,137,208  ;  while  the  figures 
for  all  the  States  for  the  same  year  were,  imports,  $373,894,- 
980,  and  the  exports,  $328,072,226;  and  for  1869,  imports, 
$463,461,427,  and  exports,  $394,644,335.  That  these  enor 
mous  figures  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  success, 
or  want  of  success,  of  the .  factory-system  in  the  United 
States,  must  be  apparent  to  all  men  who  investigate  these 
subjects. 

In  accounting  for  the  excess  of  imports  over  the  exports, 
it  may  be  stated  that  the  difference  arises  chiefly  from  the 
importation  of  articles  of  luxury.  The  American  people  are 
practical,  and  while  they  confine  themselves  chiefly  to  pro 
ducing  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life,  and  to  accumu 
lating  money,  they  are  quite  willing  to  obtain  their  fashions 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  261 

and  articles  of  luxury  from  Europe.  Notwithstanding  the 
immense  immigration  from  abroad,  the  American  people 
have  always  had  enough  to  feed  all  who  come  to  their 
shores,  and  to  provide  employment  for  all ;  and  the  strength 
of  the  nation  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the 
large  amounts  which  are  expended  for  the  mere  elegancies 
of  life,  which  the  rich  bring  over  from  Europe,  the  country 
is  constantly  prospering. 

But  again.  Statistics  show  that  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  has  been  regularly  progressing,  until  interfered  with 
by  the  late  civil  war.  Generally  speaking,  the  exports  have 
exceeded  the  imports,  and  the  balance  of  trade  has  been 
in  favor  of  America.  The  export  of  grain  does  not  de 
pend  upon  the  state  of  the  crops  so  much  as  upon  the  wants 
of  other  countries.  The  great  variety  of  the  native  pro 
ductions  exported  gives  assurance  of  the  impossibility  of 
failure  of  the  resources  of  the  nation.  Figures  also  show 
that  there  is  no  industrial  pursuit  in  which  the  people  of  the 
United  States  do  not  regularly  progress,  and  that  there  is 
little  demand  for  any  class  of  produce  which  they  are  not 
able  to  supply. 

As  the  revenue  of  the  country  depends  in  a  great  measure 
upon  the  customs  duties,  so  does  its  prosperity  chiefly  de 
pend  upon  the  amount  of  its  exports  of  bread-stuffs  and  all 
sorts  of  merchandise ;  but  as  the  theories  which  have  been 
brought  to  bear  upon  this  subject  are  widely  different,  and 
have  occupied  the  minds  of  the  ablest  writers,  they  cannot 
be  entered  upon  in  this  chapter.  Upon  one  subject,  how 
ever,  all  men  are  agreed,  viz.  :  that  the  extension  of  com 
merce  will  do  more  than  anything  else  to  diffuse  the 
blessings  of  civilization,  to  bind  together  the  universal 


262  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

society  of  nations,  by  sharpening  and  at  the  same  time 
gratifying  their  mutual  wants  and  desires,  and  to  maintain 
undisturbed  that  tranquillity  so  indispensable  to  its  full 
development. 

P.  S.  Since  the  foregoing  chapter  was  sent  to  the  printer 
we  have  received  from  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  the 
Census  Bureau  some  interesting  particulars  bearing  upon 
the  Factory,  Mechanical,  and  Farm-life  of  the  United 
States,  which  ought  not  to  be  omitted  in  this  place.  The 
following  have  reference  to  1869.  The  hours  of  labor  per 
week  were  sixty-six ;  and,  omitting  overseers,  the  average 
weekly  earnings  of  operatives  in  the  cotton  mills  was 
$5.56  in  gold.  The  wages  in  the  woolen  mills  ranged  from. 
$5  to  $17  per  week,  including  overseers;  in  the  paper 
mills  from  $4.50  to  $26 ;  in  establishments  for  making 
musical  instruments  from  $15  to  $31 ;  in  foundries  and 
machine  shops  from  $8  to  $24 ;  and  in  leather  establish 
ments  from  $9  to  $25  per  week.  In  1870,  the  average 
daily  wages  for  blacksmiths,  $4.85  ;  masons,  $5.66  ;  cabinet 
makers,  $4.99 ;  carpenters,  $5.03;  coopers,  $4.30;  painters, 
$5.36;  plasterers,  $6.51 ;  shoemakers,  $4.49;  stonecutters, 
$6.10;  tailors,  $4.58;  tanners,  $3.97;  tinsmiths,  $4.96; 
and  wheelwrights,  $5.37.  The  wages  for  farm-labor  in  the 
Eastern  States  ranged  from  73  cents  to  $1.49  per  day, 
but  on  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories,  from  $1.35  to 
$2.97  per  day.  As  a  subject  of  general  interest,  we  also 
submit  a  list,  showing  the  average  retail  prices  for  the 
leading  necessaries  of  life,  in  1869,  as  follows:  Flour, 
$7.36  per  barrel ;  beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  pork,  9  to  22 
cents  per  pound;  butter,  38  cents  per  pound;  dried  fish, 


LIFE   IN  THE   FACTORIES.  263 

13  to  15  cents  per  pound;  potatoes,  per  bushel,  75  cents; 
rice,  per  pound,  13  cents;  beans,  11  cents;  milk,  9  cents 
per  quart ;  eggs,  29  cents  per  dozen  ;  tea,  $1.40  per  pound  ; 
coffee,  28  to  35  cents;  sugar,  15  to  17  cents  per  pound ; 
coal,  810.80  per  ton;  and  wood,  per  cord,  $3.98  to  $4.98. 
The  prices  for  plain  house-rent  ranged  from  $10  to  $15 
per  month;  and  plain  board  from  $4.14  to  $4.80  per  week. 
And  finally,  for  the  want  of  a  better  place  to  print  them, 
we  submit  the  following  aggregate  of  returns  for  the 
year  1870,  respecting  the  agricultural  resources  of  the 
country : 

Acres   improved, 188,806,761 

Acres  woodland, 158,908,121 

Acres  unimproved, . , 59,366,633 

Cash  value  of  farms $9,261,775,121 

Cash  value  of  agricultural  implements, $336,890,871 

Wages  paid, $310,068,473 

Farm  products, $2,445,602,379 

Value  of  live  stock, $1,524,271,714 

Wheat,  bushels, 267,730,931 

Rye,  bushels, 17,000,000 

Indian  corn,  bushels, 760,963,204 

Oats,   bushels, 282,095,996 

Barley,  bushels, 29,761,267 

Buckwheat,  bushels, 9,821,662 

Rice,  pounds, 73,635,021 

Tobacco,  pound?, 262,729,640 

Cotton,    bales, 2,999,721 

Wool,  pounds, 102,053,264 

Potatoes,  bushels, 143,230,000 

Sweet   potatoes,  bushels, 21,634,000 

Wine,  gallons, 3,096,000 

Cheese,  pounds, 53,492,000 

Butter,  pounds, 514,002,460 


264  LIFE    AND    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

Milk,  gallons, 236,500,000 

Hay,  tons, 27,416,000 

Hops,  pounds, 28,456,669 

Sugar  (cane),    pounds, 87,043,000 

Sugar  (maple),  pounds, 28,443,000 

Molasses  (cane),  gallons, 6,600,000 

Molasses  (sorghum),  gallons, 16,041,000 


EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND   INSTI 
TUTIONS. 


ALTHOUGH  the  cause  of  education  in  America  has  always 
been  considered  of  primary  interest  and  importance,  there 
does  not,  after  all,  exist  a  regular  and  uniform  system  of 
instruction.  The  diversity  of  plans  is  almost  as  various  as 
the  several  States  of  the  Union  are  numerous;  for  each 
State,  in  its  sovereign  capacity,  has  a  right  to  devise  and 
execute,  and  does  execute,  such  provisions  for  the  educa 
tion  of  the  people  as  are  deemed  expedient.  Setting  aside, 
therefore,  a  detailed  account  of  all  the  existing  plans,  we 
can  only  consider  in  this  place  the  characteristics  of  the 
school  systems  of  the  States,  in  their  collective  capacity. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  Federal  Gov 
ernment  is  a  most  liberal  patron  of  the  schools  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  that  a  majority  of  the  States  have  re 
ceived  large  grants  of  land,  to  be  used  for  the  support  of 
educational  institutions,  and  that  they  have  appropriate 
officers  to  look  after  and  expend  the  revenue  derived  from 
the  sale  of  those  lands.  Ten  years  ago,  the  aggregated 
amount  of  money  realized  from  the  liberality  of  the  Gen 
eral  Government  was  about  $50,000,000,  but  this  amount 
has  been  annually  increased  since  then ;  and  when  to  this 
fund  we  add  the  appropriations  regularly  made  by  the 
State  Legislatures,  we  find  that  the  total  amount  of  money 
spent  for  educational  purposes  is  truly  enormous,  and  that, 

12 


266  LIFE   A1TD   RESOURCES   Itf  AMERICA. 

in  this  particular,  if  not  in  any  other,  the  States  of  Amer 
ica  are  unequalled  by  any  other  nation.  Hence  it  is  that 
there  is  ample  provision  made  by  the  authorities  alone, 
without  including  the  munificent  gifts  of  private  indi 
viduals,  to  furnish  every  child  in  the  land  with  a  good 
education ;  and  the  black  race,  or  Freedmen,  have  the  same 
privileges  which  are  enjoyed  by  the  whites.  Prior  to  the 
late  rebellion,  there  existed  no  provision  for  the  education 
of  the  colored  race,  but  as  soon  as  they  became  free, 
measures  were  taken  for  their  education,  and  in  186 9  the 
total  number  who  were  known  to  be  in  attendance  upon 
day,  night,  or  Sunday  schools,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  was  upward  of  250,000,  and  the  freed- 
men  paid  out  of  their  own  earnings  about  8200,000  for 
tuition,  and  $125,000  for  school-buildings. 

But  we  must  now  proceed  to  submit  a  general  account 
of  the  educational  systems  of  the  United  States,  and  we 
begin  with  the  common-schools,  the  principle  of  which  is 
the  free  elementary  education  of  every  child  in  the  com 
munity,  and  which  underlies  the  whole  intellectual  fabric 
of  the  American  Republic.  The  system,  as  formerly  prac 
tised,  originated  in  New  England  at  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century,  and  was  based  upon  the  following 
ideas  :  First,  the  instruction  of  all  the  children  in  the  State  in 
the  rudiments  of  an  English  education,  viz.,  reading,  writ 
ing,  elementary  arithmetic  and  geography,  and  grammar, 
this  to  be  accomplished  by  schools  in  every  district ;  Sec 
ond,  each  district  to  be  independent  of  every  other  in  afl 
financial  matters  and  management ;  Third,  that  there  should 
be  a  superintendent  or  board  of  visitors  in  each  town,  gen 
erally  consisting  of  professional  men,  and  especiaUy  clergy- 


EDUCATIONAL    LIFE    AXD    INSTITUTIONS.  267 

men,  to  examine  teachers,  inspect  the  schools,  and  prescribe 
text-books ;  Fourth,  the  support  of  these  schools  by  taxation ; 
and  Fifth,  the  power  of  compelling  attendance  on  the  part  of 
the  town  authorities.  After  an  experience  of  nearly  twenty 
years,  it  was  found  that  the  condition  of  the  schools  was 
not  up  to  the  demands  of  the  time,  and  a  revival  in  the 
cause  of  education  took  place,  which  resulted  in  greatly 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  old  system,  until  it  was 
brought  to  a  state  of  rare  excellence,  through  the  efforts 
of  such  men  as  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Barnard.  The 
school-system  was  again  regenerated,  and  now  possesses  all 
the  elements  of  the  highest  efficiency,  the  leading  features 
of  which  are  as  follows :  First,  a  system  of  graded  schools 
for  each  town,  embracing  primary  schools  for  the  younger 
pupils;  grammar-schools  for  the  older, in  which  are  taught, 
in  addition  to  the  common  branches,  philosophy,  chemistry, 
history,  drawing,  music,  algebra,  geometry,  and  the  French 
lano-uao-e;  hio;h-schools  for  the  more  advanced,  in  which 

O  CD       /  O  * 

are  taught  the  studies  necessary  for  a  business  education, 
as  well  as  the  languages  and  the  higher  mathematics.  Sec 
ondly,  the  employment  of  regular  visitors,  who  are  paid  for 
their  services.  Thirdly,  the  enforcement  of  uniformity  of 
text-books,  and  regularity  in  attendance.  Fourthly,  regu 
lar  and  frequent  public  examinations.  Fifthly,  the  estab 
lishment  of  school  libraries  in  connection  with  all  the 
schools.  Sixthly,  the  introduction  of  blackboards,  globes, 
maps,  charts,  and  other  apparatus  for  instruction.  Sev 
enthly,  the  proper  construction  of  school-houses.  Eighthly, 
the  establishment  in  every  State  of  normal  schools  for  the 
instruction  of  regular  teachers.  Ninthly,  the  organization 
of  State  associations  for  comparison  of  methods  of  teach- 


268  LIFE   AND   KESOUECES   IN   AMERICA. 

ing,  and  the  establishment  of  school  periodicals.  And, 
Tenthly,  the  extension  of  the  privileges  of  these  schools  to 
all  the  children  of  the  school-age  in  each  State,  either  by 
supporting  the  schools  entirely  by  taxation  and  the  income 
of  funds  where  they  exist,  or  by  taxation  and  small  rate- 
bills,  which  are  abated  where  they  are  unable  to  pay,  and 
the  furnishing  of  necessary  books  to  the  children  of  the 
poor. 

That  the  above  is  a  noble  groundwork  for  the  education 
of  the  masses  must  be  acknowledged  by  all,  and  yet  we 
find  it  a  subject  of  serious  complaint  that  the  teachers  in 
the  common-schools  are  not  what  they  should  be.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  they  are  said  to  be  too  young  and 
inexperienced,  and  that  both  the  young  men  and  young 
women  employed  look  upon  the  office  merely  as  a  step 
ping-stone  to  better  positions  or  more  agreeable  employ 
ments,  and  not  as  a  permanent  business.  An  office  under 
the  Government,  or  a  profession,  will  allure  the  young  man 
from  the  school-room ;  and  so  also  will  an  offer  of  mar 
riage,  the  young  woman.  Of  course  there  are  many  teach 
ers  whose  knowledge,  discipline,  and  nobleness  of  character, 
eminently  fit  them  for  their  responsible  posts,  but  they 
are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  form  a  class;  and  it  was 
this  fact  which  caused  a  prominent  writer  on  the  subject  to 
suggest  that  all  badly-managed  schools  should  be  closed, 
and  that  the  houses  should  bear  this  inscription  :  "  Poor 
teachers  worse  than  no  teachers/'  In  the  one  particular  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  it  is  confessed  by  leading  Amer 
icans,  that  Prussia  is  far  in  advance  of  the  United  States. 
But  notwithstanding  this  drawback,  the  common-schools 
of  the  country  are  a  great  national  blessing.  They  are 


EDUCATIONAL  LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  269 

free  and  open  to  the  poorest  children  in  the  community ; 
but  because  these  advantages  are  not  always  accepted  by 
the  people,  in  some  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  laws  have 
been  passed  compelling  a  certain  attendance  at  school. 
The  houses  are  comfortable,  and  conveniently  located  in 
every  district  where  they  are  needed.  The  teachers  are 
generally  intelligent  and  circumspect  in  their  lives  and 
morals,  and  where  they  make  teaching  a  regular  profession, 
are  all  that  could  be  reasonably  expected  or  desired. 
With  regard  to  their  compensation  there  is  no  uniformity, 
but  it  is  estimated  to  range  from  $39  to  $57  per  month 
for  male  teachers,  with  board,  and  from  $27  to  $-30  per 
month  for  female  teachers,  with  board.  But,  perhaps  a 
better  idea,  on  this  head,  may  be  obtained  by  looking 
at  the  average  of  the  annual  salaries  which  have  recently 
been  paid  in  some  of  the  leading  cities,  as  follows: 
Boston,  8798;  Cincinnati,  $769;  New  Haven,  $577;  New 
York,  $649;  New  Orleans,  $675;  Philadelphia,  $415 ; 
San  Francisco,  $829,  and  Washington,  $507.  Nor  is 
there,  as  we  have  already  stated,  any  uniformity  in  the 
management  of  the  schools  by  the  State  authorities,  and 
so,  with  a  view  of  attempting  to  give  a  general  idea  of 
their  condition,  we  submit  the  following  figures  in  regard 
to  four  of  the  representative  States  of  the  republic  :  The 
number  of  scholars  who  attend  school  in  the  small  State  of 
Connecticut,  is  124,000;  amount  expended  in  1870  for 
school  purposes,  $1,269,152,  and  its  school-fund  is  $2,046,- 
108:  in  New  York  there  are  1,000,000  children  in  the 
common-schools,  and  120,000  in  the  private  schools;  the 
school-houses  are  valued  at  $20,500,000;  the  amount  paid 
to  teachers,  is  $6,500,000;  amount  expended  in  1870  for 


270  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   IN  AMERICA. 

instruction,  nearly  $10,000,000,  and  the  school-fund  is 
$11,300,000:  in  Pennsylvania,  the  scholars  are  900,753; 
schools,  14,212;  teachers,  17,612;  school  property,  $14,- 
045,632,  and  annual  expenses  about  $7,000,000;  and  in 
Ohio,  the  scholars  are  740,382,  and  the  school  expenditures 
in  1870  amounted  to  $7,771,761.  Total  amount  of  school- 
fund  in  all  the  States  is  estimated  at  $50,000,000.  We 
give  no  figures  in  regard  to  any  of  the  Southern  States, 
first,  because  the  system  of  common-schools  has  never 
flourished  in  that  region  of  the  country,  and  secondly, 
because  the  late  war  has  so  deranged  all  public  matters  in 
those  States,  that  no  statements  at  this  time  would  do 
them  full  justice.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  done 
in  the  United  States  for  the  cause  of  education,  it  has 
been  estimated  that  the  illiterate  people  of  the  country 
number  about  6,000,000. 

With  regard  to  the  much,  discussed  subject  of  the  Bible 
in  common-schools,  we  may  submit  the  following  remarks 
by  a  distinguished  professor  of  Harvard  University  :  "  To 
banish  the  Bible  was  to  garble  history,  for  there  was  much 
history  of  which  it  was  the  only  source.  Christianity  is 
the  great  factor  in  the  history  of  the  world.  If  moral 
philosophy  is  to  be  taught,  it  must  be  Christian  ethics. 
For  the  culture  of  the  taste  and  imagination,  the  Bible 
transcends  all  other  literature.  Our  English  Bible  has 
rendered  important  service  in  preserving  our  language.  It 
is  the  key  to  the  best  English  diction,  and  has  helped  to 
form  the  diction  of  every  child.  Our  children  should  not 
be  kept  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  we  are  a  Christian 
people.  Sectarian  religion  should  be  excluded  ;  but  this 
can  be  done  only  by  giving  an  unsectarian  book,  and  the 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE    AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

Bible  is  such  a  book.  The  Roman  Catholics,  in  opposing 
the  introduction  of  the  Bible  in  common-schools,  do  not  so 
much  object  to  the  book  itself,  but  rather  desire  that  the 
school-funds  should  be  separated,  which  course  the  Pro 
testants  think  would  be  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  system." 

With  a  view  of  enhancing  the  efficiency  of  the  common- 
schools  in  the  United  States,  there  have  been  organized 

'  S 

within  the  last  few  years  a  large  number  of  Normal  schools, 
the  sole  object  of  which  is  to  educate  a  class  of  persons 
solely  for  the  business  of  teaching,  whereby  very  great 
good  has  already  been  accomplished,  in  elevating  the  tone 
of  instruction.  At  the  present  time  there  are  fifty  of  these 
schools  in  successful  operation  in  the  Northern  States, 
which  are  supported  by  the  City  or  State  Governments, 
and  not  less  than  thirty  in  the  Southern  States,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  freed  men  ; — and  the  number  of  teachers 
already  educated  by  them,  including  males  and  females,  is 
estimated  at  two  hundred  thousand,  and  the  pupils  now 
being  instructed  about  nine  thousand.  While  there  is  no 
special  uniformity  in  the  management  of  these  schools,  we 
may  obtain  a  general  idea  of  their  character  by  glancing 
at  the  features  of  a  single  one  of  them  which  has  been  par 
ticularly  successful,  viz.:  the  Normal  University  of  Illinois. 
Candidates  for  admission  to  this  institution,  whether  male 
or  female,  must  have  attained  the  age  of  sixteen  :  must 
produce  certificates  of  good  moral  character ;  must  sign  a 
declaration  that  they  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  school- 
teaching  in  Illinois  ;  and  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examina 
tion  in  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography, 
and  the  elements  of  English  grammar.  The  necessary 


272  LIFE  AJSTD  KESOUKCES  IN  AMEKICA. 

annual  expenses  for  each  pupil  range  from  ninety-seven  to 
one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  dollars.  There  are  five  pro 
fessors,  and  the  term  of  study  is  the  usual  one  of  three 
years  :  and  the  course  of  instruction  embraces  the  follow 
ing  subjects :  metaphysics,  history  and  methods  of  educa 
tion,  constitution  of  the  State  and  the  United  States, 
school-laws,  English  language,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geom 
etry,  natural  philosophy,  book-keeping,  geography,  history, 
astronomy,  chemistry,  botany,  physiology,  geology,  vocal 
music,  and  writing  and  drawing.  The  total  number  of 
pupils  is  three  hundred ;  and  there  is  an  appendage  to  the 
institution  called  a  model  school,  which  contains  five  hun 
dred  pupils,  whose  tuition  is  free,  although  they  have  to 
support  themselves.  While  the  Americans  confess  that 
their  common-schools  are  not  equal  in  efficiency  to  those 
of  some  other  countries,  they  claim  that  this  state  of  things 
cannot  continue,  and  that  their  Normal  schools,  as  at  pres 
ent  organized,  are  unsurpassed. 

Before  an  American  youth  can  pass  from  a  common- 
school  into  a  college,  he  is  obliged  to  go  through  a  course 
of  studies  in  what  is  called  a  high-school,  or  academy. 
These  institutions  are  exceedingly  varied  in  character, 
quite  numerous,  independent  in  organization,  and  very 
frequently  originate  in  the  liberality  of  private  individuals. 
Although  the  instruction  afforded  by  them  is  not  gratui 
tous,  the  expenses  are  generally  moderate.  In  some  of 
them,  however,  provision  is  made  by  public  appropriations 
for  the  education  of  such  pupils  as  are  too  poor  to  pay. 
It  often  happens,  however,  that  when  young  men  are  about 
to  leave  the  academy  or  high-school,  they  conclude  that 
their  education  has  been  sufficiently  advanced  for  all  prac- 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  273 

tical  purposes,  and  so  relinquish  the  idea  of  passing  through 
college. 

And  here,  before  describing  the  colleges  and  universi 
ties  of  America,  we  may  with  propriety  allude  to  the 
present  condition  of  the  miscellaneous  schools  of  the 
country.  Of  distinct  schools  of  science,  unconnected 
with  colleges,  there  are  none  of  any  importance;  but  the 
Sheffield  Scientific  School,  which  forms  a  part  of  Yale  Col 
lege,  and  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  connected  with 
Harvard  University,  are  both  flourishing  institutions,  and 
are  doing  much  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  age  ;  while  there 
are  departments,  standing  on  nearly  the  same  basis,  belong 
ing  to  Brown  University,  Rutgers  College,  and  the  Uni 
versity  of  Michigan.  As  to  Industrial  Schools,  there  is 
also  a  great  dearth  of  these  in  the  United  States ;  especi 
ally  is  this  true  in  regard  to  Engineering  and  Navigation  ; 
and  about  all  that  is  accomplished  in  the  country,  in  the 
way  of  art-instruction,  is  accomplished  by  the  National 
Academy  and  Cooper  Institute  of  New  York,  the  Athe 
naeum  in  Boston,  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  Philadelphia, 
and  the  Peabody  Institute  in  Baltimore.  In  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  they  have  Institutions  of 
Technology;  in  California,  a  College  of  Mining  and  the 
Mechanic  Arts,  associated  with  Agriculture ;  and  attached 
to  Columbia  College,  in  New  York,  they  have  a  School  of 
Mines.  As  to  the  advantages  afforded  by  agricultural 
Colleges,  they  are  quite  numerous,  and  well-endowed 
institutions  are  to  be  found  in  the  States  of  Delaware, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Mary 
land,  Massachusetts  (where  there  are  several  Japanese 
students),  Michigan,  Minnesota,  New  Hampshire,  Pennsyl- 


274  LIFE    AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

vania,  Vermont,  West  Virginia.,  and  Wisconsin.  In  none 
of  the  public  schools  of  America  are  the  foundation  prin 
ciples  of  commerce  taught,  and  hence  there  have  "been 
established  by  private  individuals  what  is  called  a  "  Chain 
of  Commercial  Colleges;" — they  number  not  less  than 
forty,  and  extend  from  Maine  to  Louisiana ;  their  course  of 
instruction  is  very  complete,  and  covers  all  that  is  neces 
sary  for  a  commercial  life ;  and  because  this  association  is 
under  one  head,  the  regulations  are  such,  that  a  student, 
after  completing  a  course  of  studies  in  one,  may  again  take 
them  up  and  pursue  them  at  another  school  of  the  Chain, 
without  additional  expense.  With  regard  to  the  theologi 
cal  institutions,  they  have  already  been  mentioned  in  a 
previous  part  of  this  volume ;  and  on  a  page  which  is  to 
follow,  we  shall  speak  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Schools  of 
the  country.  The  only  schools  remaining  to  be  mentioned 
under  this  miscellaneous  head  are  those  devoted  to  the 
study  of  .medicine  and  law.  The  Medical  Colleges  and 
Schools  of  the  country  number  fifty-one,  and,  first  and 
last,  as  a  competent  writer  has  said,  there  have  stood  at 
the  head  of  them  men  of  learning,  genius,  and  eminent 
distinction.  And  so  there  have  also  been,  in  the  ranks  of 
the  profession,  many  physicians  and  surgeons  of  great 
ability  and  skill.  But  hardly  any  one  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  status  of  medical  education  in  America,  will  claim 
that  either  the  distinguished  professor,  author,  or  practi 
tioner,  has  owed  his  success,  in  any  considerable  degree,  to  the 
training  of  the  schools ;  for,  as  compared  with  the  Euro 
pean  standard,  the  training  in  America  has  been  unsatis 
factory  to  the  last  degree.  The  Law  Schools  of  the  LTnited 
States  number  twenty-two  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  in  at  least 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  275 

one  respect,  they  are  superior  to  those  of  England : — iu 
that,  what  they  assume  to  do  at  all,  they  do  more  thor 
oughly  and  well.  But  it  is  no  less  true  that  they  under 
take  very  little  in  comparison  with  what  is  both  attempted 
and  accomplished  in  several  of  the  European  countries.  In 
the  form  of  departments,  there  are  schools  of  law  connec 
ted  with  many  of  the  leading  colleges ;  and  in  all  of  them 
the  term  of  study  is  two  years,  the  course  of  instruction 
being  so  arranged  that  a  complete  view  is  given  during 
each  year  of  the  subjects  embraced  within  it.  The  pro 
fessors  number  from  one  to  five  in  each  of  these  schools; 
a  majority  of  them,  in  many  instances,  being  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Courts  and  resident  lawyers  in  regular  prac 
tice,  whose  services  are  gratuitous  or  partially  compen 
sated.  The  terms  of  admission  are  simply  good  morals 
and  the  age  of  eighteen  years,  and  the  fees,  payable  in 
advance,  amount  to  one  hundred  dollars.  The  lawyers  of 
the  United  States,  as  heretofore  mentioned,  have  much  to 
do  with  the  making  of  the  national  laws,  and  the  affairs  of 
the  General  Government ;  and  a  competent  American 
critic  has  said,  how  few  of  them  have  been  students  of 
political  economy,  of  civil  polity,  and  of  universal  history, 
is  painfully  manifest  from  the  legislative  discussions  they 
hold  and  the  laws  they  enact. 

We  come  now  to  speak,  in  general  terms,  of  the  Colle 
giate  Institutions  of  the  United  States,  known  as  univer 
sities,  colleges,  seminaries,  and  institutes,  and  which 
number  in  the  aggregate  not  less  than  two  hundred  and 
eighty-five, — exclusive  of  eighty-two,  in  which  theology  is 
alone  studied.  While  their  courses  of  instruction  embrace 
all  branches  of  learning,  it  is  almost  invariably  the  case  that 


276  LIFE   AtfD   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

something  like  a  sectarian  element  pervades  each  institu 
tion,  the  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  those  which  are 
supported  by  the  State  governments.  The  number  of  insti 
tutions  in  America  bearing  the  title  of  university  is  larger 
than  in  any  other  country,  and  a  less  number  of  them  is  said 
to  have  really  any  sort  of  claim  to  the  title.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  several  colleges  which,  though  bearing  that 
more  modest  name,  are  really  entitled  to  be  called  univer 
sities.  And  then  again  there  are  seminaries  and  institutes 
which  would  seem,  from  their  extent  and  high  character, 
to  be  worthy  of  being  called  colleges.  The  precise  mean 
ing  of  the  term  university  is  a  universal  school,  in  which 
are  taught  all  branches  of  learning,  or  the  four  faculties  of 
theology,  medicine,  law,  and  the  sciences  and  arts ;  a 
college  is  a  school  incorporated  for  purposes  of  instruction, 
where  the  students  may  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  lan 
guages  and  sciences  ;  the  idea  of  a  seminary  or  an  academy 
is  allied  to  that  of  a  college,  only  that  the  former  are  more 
especially  designed  for  a  younger  class  of  students ;  and  an 
institute  is  a  literary  or  philosophical  society,  formed  by 
persons  for  their  mutual  instruction  and  advantage  in  all 
matters  connected  with  intellectual  culture.  The  so-called 
universities  of  America  number  one  hundred,  while  the 
other  collegiate  institutions  are  about  equally  divided 
between  the  three  remaining  classes.  To  give  an  account 
of  all  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  expected  in  this  paper,  but  the 
reader  may  obtain  a  general  idea  of  their  character  by 
glancing  at  a  few  of  the  more  influential  and  prominent 
institutions. 

Harvard  College,  located  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachu 
setts,  and  founded  in   1636,  is  the  oldest   institution    of 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.  277 

learning  in  America.  It  has  twenty-eight  professors  and 
about  five  hundred  students ;  and  although  it  has  hitherto 
had  a  Liberal  divinity  school,  arrangements  have  recently 
been  made  for  incorporating  in  it  an  "  Episcopal  Theologi 
cal  School."  It  has  a  Law  department,  with  three  profes 
sors;  a  Medical  department,  with  eleven  professors;  a 
School  of  Astronomy,  with  two  professors ;  a  Dental  School, 
with  seven  professors ;  a  Museum  of  Zoology,  with  lectures 
by  four  professors ;  and  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
and  School  of  Mining  and  Practical  Geology,  with  seven 
professors.  Its  general  and  special  libraries  comprise  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  volumes,  and  its  scientific  col 
lections  are  extensive  and  of  great  value.  It  is  managed 
by  one  president,  five  fellows,  and  one  treasurer,  and  by 
thirty  overseers  chosen  by  the  State  Legislature ;  its  en 
dowment  fund,  derived  from  numerous  individuals  and 
corporations,  and  independent  of  the  college  grounds, 
buildings,  libraries,  and  collections,  is  somewhat  over  two 
millions  of  dollars ;  and  its  annual  income  is  about  one 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  dollars.  The  term  of  study 
in  the  law  school  is  two  years ;  in  the  divinity  school 
three;  and  candidates  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine 
must  have  studied  three  years,  and  attended  two  courses 
of  lectures. 

The  next  oldest  institution  of  learning  in  America  is 
Yale  College,  founded  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1700. 
It  has  about  sixty  professors,  and  usually  seven  hundred 
students.  Besides  an  academical  department,  it  has  five 
others,  devoted  to  philosophy,  theology,  law,  medicine, 
and  the  fine  arts.  Its  miscellaneous  collections  are  exten 
sive  and  very  valuable,  and  its  libraries  comprise  about 


278  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES    IX   AMERICA. 

eighty-five  thousand  volumes.  The  total  amount  of  its 
funds  available  for  the  support  of  the  college  is  something 
over  one  million  of  dollars.  This  college  differs  from 
Harvard  chiefly  in  the  constitution  of  its  department  of 
philosophy  and  the  arts,  which  has  come  to  be  known  as 
the  Sheffield  Scientific  School.  Candidates  for  admission 
are  obliged  to  be  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  to  undergo  a 
twofold  examination,  first  in  mathematical  studies,  and 
secondly  in  elementary  literary  studies.  The  charge  for 
tuition  is  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  but  students 
of  chemistry  have  to  pay  an  additional  sum  of  seventy-five 
dollars.  The  term  of  study  in  each  of  the  courses  is  three 
years ;  and  in  the  divinity  school  no  charge  is  made  for 
tuition. 

Another  college  of  note  and  influence  is  Columbia 
College,  founded  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1754,  but 
prior  to  1787  it  was  known  as  King's  College.  Its  funds, 
derived  chiefly  from  donations,  amount  to  two  millions  of 
dollars ;  its  professors  about  fifty,  and  the  usual  number  of 
students  is  nine  hundred.  It  has  four  departments,  devoted 
to  Letters  and  Science,  Mines,  Law,  and  Medicine.  The 
charges  for  tuition  range  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  sixty  dollars  per  annum ;  several  societies  and  muni 
cipal  corporations  are  entitled  to  several  scholarships  free 
of  charge ;  every  religious  denomination  in  the  city  of 
Kew  York  is  entitled  always  to  have  one  student  free  of 
all  charges  for  tuition ;  and  every  school  from  which  there 
shall  be  admitted  four  matriculants  in  any  year,  is  also 
allowed  to  send  one  pupil  free  of  charge. 

The  College  of  New  Jersey,  located  at  Princeton,  is 
another  of  the  venerable  institutions  of  the  United  States. 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  279 

It  was  founded  in  1746;  has  about  twenty  professors,  and 
nearly  three  hundred  students ;  is  supported  by  the  Pres 
byterians,  and  has  educated  nearly  nine  hundred  men  for 
the  ministry ;  charges  a  tuition  fee  of  seventy  dollars  ;  and 
lias  a  choice  library  of  twenty-five  thousand  volumes.  In 
Georgetown,  District  of  Columbia,  there  is  a  Roman  Cath 
olic  College,  founded  in  1792,  with  twenty  professors,  two 
hundred  students,  and  a  library  of  thirty  thousand  volumes ; 
in  Brunswick,  Maine,  is  located  Bowdoin  College,  founded 
in  1802,  and  possessing  a  library  of  thirty-seven  thousand 
volumes;  in  Xew  Hampshire  they  have  Dartmouth  Col 
lege,  founded  in  1769,  supported  by  the  Congregational- 
ists,  and  with  thirty-eight  thousand  volumes  in  its  library; 
in  Pennsylvania,  Dickinson  College,  founded  in  1783,  sup 
ported  by  the  Methodists,  and  with  twenty-five  thousand 
volumes  ;  in  Rhode  Island,  Brown  University,  founded  in 
1764,  supported  by  the  Baptists,  and  having  a  library  of 
thirty-eight  thousand  volumes;  and  in  Virginia,  a  State 
University,  founded  in  1819,  with  thirty-five  thousand  vol 
umes.  But  there  are  several  institutions,  which  have  more 
recently  been  founded,  and  which  are  growing  with  great 
rapidity  and  exercising  a  paramount  influence  in  the  edu 
cational  world,  viz.:  the  Universities  of  Michigan,  Ken 
tucky,  and  Illinois,  and  the  Cornell  University  in  New 
York.  But  there  is  another  institution  which  deserves 
special  mention,  because  of  its  extent  and  peculiar  charac 
ter,  viz.:  Vas&ar  College,  located  at  Poughkeepsie,  Xew 
York.  It  was  founded  in  1861,  through  the  liberality  of 
one  man,  Matthew  Vassar,  and  is  wholly  devoted  to  the 
education  of  women.  The  buildings  are  extensive  and 
beautiful ;  the  school  offers  the  highest  educational  facili- 


280  LIFE   AK"D   RESOURCES   13"   AMERICA. 

ties  to  females  at  moderate  expense,  and  admits  as  bene 
ficiaries  those  who  are  unable  to  pay  even  that  expense. 
Special  attention  is  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  and  it  has  a 
corps  of  instructors  in  the  English  language  and  literature, 
the  modern  languages  of  Europe  and  their  literature,  an 
cient  languages,  mathematics,  all  the  branches  of  natural 
science,  including  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  intel 
lectual  and  moral  philosophy,  political  economy  and  the 
science  of  government,  domestic  economy,  and  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures,  without  sectarianism. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  educational  records 
of  the  United  States  are  very  complete,  and  the  amount 
of  money  annually  expended  in  the  cause  is  very  large, 
it  would  seem  that  the  requirements  of  the  age  and  of 
America  have  not  as  yet  by  any  means  been  attained.  An 
American  writer,  in  an  elaborate  report  on  this  subject, 
published  at  the  National  expense,  has  summed  up  his 
opinions  in  a  single  paragraph,  as  follows  :  To  tell  the 
plain  truth,  he  says,  the  very  best  of  our  many  universities 
are  but  sorry  skeletons  of  the  well-developed  and  shapely 
institutions  they  ought  to  be  and  must  become,  before  they 
will  be  fairly  entitled  to  rank  among  the  foremost  univer 
sities  of  even  this  present  day.  And  if  we  are  not  content 
always  to  suffer  the  contempt  of  European  scholars,  who 
properly  enough  regard  us  as  a  very  clever,  but  also  a  very 
uncultured,  people,  it  is  time  that  all  true  lovers  of  learn 
ing,  as  well  as  all  who  desire  the  highest  prosperity  and 
glory  of  America,  should  awake  to  the  importance  of  at 
once  providing  the  means  of  a  profounder,  broader,  and 
higher  culture  in  every  department  of  human  learning. 

As  the  education  of  women  is  a  subject  which  possesses 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.  281 

a  peculiar  interest  for  the  people  of  Japan,  we  here  sub 
mit  a  few  observations  in  that  connection.  In  America, 
females  possess  precisely  the  same  advantages  for  educa 
tion  that  are  possessed  by  the  males.  Boys  and  girls  are 
admitted  to  the  same  schools ;  and  the  gentle  influences 
of  the  latter  are  counterbalanced  by  the  elevating  influ 
ences  of  the  former,  whereby  it  is  thought  that  both  classes 
are  improved.  At  the  same  time,  there  are  thousands  of 
schools  in  which  the  two  sexes  are  instructed  separately. 
The  idea  is  universal  that  the  women  of  the  country  are 
capable  of  receiving,  and  should  receive,  the  highest  kind 
of  education ;  and  as  to  the  question  of  their  right  to  take 
part  in  politics,  by  voting,  which  has  been  extensively  dis 
cussed  in  America,  it  seems  to  be  one  of  those  problems 
which  the  future  alone  can  establish.  The  important  part 
which  the  women  of  America  take  in  educational  affairs 
is  shown  by  the  following  facts, — that  they  are  educated 
at  the  Normal  schools  for  the  express  purpose  of  becoming 
teachers, — that  they  officiate  as  teachers  in  thousands  of  the 
common-schools, — that  seminaries  for  the  education  of 
young  ladies  are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  country, — 
that  they  are  admitted  into  several  of  the  American  col 
leges  as  regular  students,  and  that  a  number  of  institutions 
of  the  highest  character  are  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
education  of  women,  the  most  extensive  and  interesting, 
Yassar  College,  having  already  been  mentioned.  N"ot  only 
are  the  libraries  of  the  country  regularly  visited  and  used  by 
ladies  (in  some  of  which  they  are  employed  as  librarians), 
but  in  the  leading  cities  are  to  be  found  libraries  and  read 
ing-rooms  designed  for  their  use  exclusively,  and  all  of 
them  in  harmony  with  the  idea  of  American  civilization. 


LITEKARY,  AETISTIO,  AND    SCIEX- 
TIFIO  LIFE. 


UNDER  the  head  of  literary  life,  we  propose  to  submit 
some  information  on  the  book-publishing  and  newspaper 
interests  of  the  United  States.  When  an  author  lias  written 
a  book,  whether  large  or  small,  and  desires  to  profit  by  its 
publication,  he  is  obliged  to  take  out  a  copyright,  by 
which  the  Government  promises  to  protect  his  rights,  for 
a  term  of  years,  in  the  profits  of  the  work,  as  his  own  prop 
erty.  The  document  in  question  is  issued  under  the  law 
by  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  and  two  copies  of  every  book 
or  pamphlet  published  have  to  be  deposited  in  the  National 
Library,  whereby  the  collection  of  volumes  belonging  to 
the  Government  is  annually  increased  to  a  large  extent. 
The  books  printed  and  the  authors  who  write  them  are  so 
numerous,  that  it  would  be  quite  impossible  even  to  name 
them  in  this  place.  The  best  and  most  comprehensive 
work  ever  published  on  the  authors  who  have  written  in 
the  English  language,  was  written  by  an  American,  named 
S.  Austin  Allibone ;  it  is  called  a  "  Dictionary  of  Authors," 
and  contains  the  names  of  not  less  than  forty-six  thousand 
authors,  with  an  account  of  their  publications. 

As  to  the  subjects  upon  which  books  are  written,  they 
are,  of  course,  very  numerous,  the  general  heads  under  which 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,   AXD   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  283 

they  are  arranged  being  as  follows :  theology  and  religion, 
poetry,  history,  biography,  geography  and  travels,  philoso 
phy,  science,  social  reform,  school-books,  useful  and  fine 
arts,  fiction,  literature,  miscellaneous  books,  republications 
and  translations  from  foreign  authors.  With  many  men, 
as  well  as  women,  the  writing  of  books  is  a  special  business ; 
and  then  again  there  are  thousands  of  books  written  merely 
as  a  pastime  by  their  authors,  or  from  motives  of  personal 
vanity  ;  generally  speaking,  the  writers  do  not  find  the 
business  profitable ;  but  then  again,  there  are  authors  who 
make  a  great  deal  of  money  by  writing — especially  is  this 
the  case  with  school-books,  novels,  and  national  histories. 
The  men  who  print  and  sell  the  books  which  are  written, 
are  called  publishers,  and  in  all  the  principal  cities  are  to 
be  found  establishments  which  do  business  on  a  very  large 
scale.  Some  of  them  give  employment  to  large  numbers 
of  people,  such  as  writers,  paper-makers,  printers,  binders, 
artists  of  various  kinds,  and  machinists,  as  well  as  clerks 
and  common  workmen,  and  not  a  few  have  acquired  very 
large  fortunes  by  this  b.ranch  of  industry.  They  usually 
sell  books  by  the  quantity  alone,  and  the  retail  merchants 
who  purchase  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  every  town  and 
village  in  the  whole  land.  When  an  author  has  written  a 
book,  he  either  sells  his  copyright  to  the  publisher  for  a 
specific  sum  of  money,  after  which  he  has  nothing  to  do 
with  his  work,  or 'else  he  allows  the  publisher  the  privilege 
of  printing  and  selling  his  book,  charging  for  the  same  a 
certain  per  centum  on  the  price  of  each  volume,  retaining 
the  ownership  of  the  work  in  his  own  name.  While  many 
of  the  books  published  are  so  interesting  or  valuable  as  to 
be  purchased  by  everybody  interested  in  the  subject,  very 


284  LIFE   ASHD   RESOURCES   I2f   AMERICA. 

many  of  them  can  only  be  sold  by  means  of  extravagant 
notices  in  the  newspapers,  and  hence  the  custom  prevails 
of  sending  most  of  all  the  new  books  to  the  newspapers, 
which  pretend  to  give  impartial  notices,  but  often  do  the 
very  reverse.  The  custom  of  reading  books  among  the 
people  of  America  is  almost  universal,  far  more  so,  it  is  said, 
than  is  the  case  in  England  or  France  ;  and  in  every  home, 
from  that  of  the  rich  merchant  down  to  the  poorest  farmer, 
may  generally  be  found  such  collections  of  books  as  they 
desire  or  can  afford  to  buy.  And  for  those  wrho  cannot 
afford  to  purchase  all  they  may  wish  to  read,  in  the  cities 
and  towns  everywhere  they  have  circulating  libraries, 
where,  for  a  small  consideration,  books  may  be  read,  or 
borrowed,  to  be  read  at  home.  In  most  of  the  leading 
cities  collections  of  this  sort  have  been  established  which 
are  very  extensive  and  valuable.  The  good  which  these 
libraries  accomplish,  by  furnishing  the  people  with  informa 
tion  on  every  conceivable  subject,  cannot  be  estimated; — 
the  money  which  some  of  them  have  cost  would  reach 
•$1,000,000;  and  the  largest  in  the  country,  which  is  called 
the  National  Library,  and  located  in  ^Yashington  City, 
contains  not  less  than  200,000  volumes,  and  is  entirely  free 
to  all  who  may  desire  to  consult  its  treasures.  In  1860, 
there  were  27,730  libraries  in  the  country,  in  which  were 
collected  nearly  14,000,000  of  volumes. 

But  the  most  striking  feature  connected  with  the  litera 
ture  of  America,  is  the  universal  circulation  of  newspapers 
and  magazines,  which  are  read  by  all  classes  of  the  people, 
and  so  conducted  as  to  form,  to  a  great  extent,  a  substi 
tute  for  books.  According  to  the  latest  accounts,  the 
whole  number  of  periodicals  issued  in  the  United  States 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    AND    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.  285 

and  its  Territories,  is  6,056  ;  of  these  637  are  published 
daily,  118  tri- weekly,  129  semi-weokly,  4,642  weekly, 
21  bi-weekly,  100  serai-monthly,  715  monthly,  14  bi 
monthly,  and  62  are  issued  quarterly.  Of  this  large  num 
ber  it  is  estimated  that  about  four-fifths  are  political  jour 
nals,  the  remainder  being  religious  or  literary.  It  is 
through  these  numerous  publications  that  the  mind  of  the 
nation  is  chiefly  expressed,  and  its  intellectual  pulse  may 
generally  be  measured  by  the  success  of  the  several  journals. 
"While  very  many  of  these  have  a  circulation  which  is 
confined  to  their  particular  religious  sect  or  political  party, 
there  are  a  few  whose  circulation  is  immense,  and  their 
influence  proportionably  extensive.  For  example,  there  is 
one  weekly  paper  published  in  New  York,  which  has  a 
circulation  of  175,000,  and  if  we  estimate  that  each  paper 
is  read  by  five  persons,  which  is  not  unlikely,  we  perceive 
that  each  issue  has  the  teaching  of  875,000  minds;  and 
then  again,  there  are  some  daily  papers  which  issue  every 
morning  from  100,000  to  200,000  copies.  As  far  back  as 
1860,  it  was  estimated  that  the  circulation  of  the  news 
papers  alone  amounted  to  100,000,000.  Hence  we  per 
ceive  that  the  power  of  the  Press  is  enormous,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  con 
ducted  with  honesty  and  wisdom.  That  portion  of  it 
which  comes  under  the  head  of  newspapers  is  by  far  the 
most  profitable,  so  far  as  making  money  is  concerned,  but 
the  profit  does  not  come  from  selling  the  paper  alone.  In 
all  of  them  certain  columns  or  pages  are  filled  up  with 
advertisements,  and  as  these  are  paid  for  on  liberal  terms, 
they  become  a  source  of  profit.  The  ownership  of  these 
papers  is  generally  vested  in  a  company  of  men,  who  are 


286  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES    1^   AMERICA. 

the  printers  and  publishers ;  and  as  some  of  these  great 
establishments  send  forth  books,  as  well  as  newspapers  and 
periodicals,  we  can  only  obtain  an  idea  of  the  extent  of 
their  business  by  resorting  to  figures.  According  to  the 
latest  published  statements  the  capital  invested  in  print 
ing  and  publishing  is  about  $20,000,000;  cost  of  raw 
material  used,  $13,000,000;  cost  of  labor,  per  annum, 
about  $8,000,000;  number  of  hands  employed,  more  than 
20,000 ;  and  the  value  of  books,  periodicals,  and  daily 
journals,  nearly  $32,000,000.  With  these  figures  before 
us,  we  cannot  wonder  that  what  is  called  the.  Press  of 
America  should  be  considered  an  element  of  almost  incal 
culable  power.  As  has  well  been  said,  it  records  with 
fidelity  the  proceedings  of  Congress,  of  all  State  and  Ter 
ritorial  legislatures,  and  of  judicial  tribunals,  holds  the 
pulpit  to  a  just  responsibility,  reviews  the  doings  of  busi 
ness  and  social  life,  and  watches  with  sleepless  vigilance 
over  the  concerns  of  the  people.  It  is  the  great  repre 
sentative  of  the  people ;  a  conservative  power  held  by  them 
to  guard  both  public  and  industrial  liberty ;  reflecting 
their  opinions  and  judgments  in  all  matters  respecting  the 
public  weal ;  exposing  wrong,  and  vindicating  and  en 
couraging  the  right. 

In  writing  for  the  newspapers  of  America,  many  of  the 
ablest  men  are  employed,  and  the  leading  writer  for  each 
journal  is  called  an  editor.  He  is  frequently  the  sole  pro 
prietor,  sometimes  only  owns  a  few  shares  in  the  enterprise, 
and  then  again  he  may  be  hired  to  perform  a  specific  editorial 
duty.  He  is  responsible  for  the  opinions  expressed,  and 
when  necessary,  as  is  always  the  case  in  the  larger  establish 
ments,  he  is  assisted  in  his  labors  by  sub-editors,  who  look 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,   AKD   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.          287 

after  all  matters  connected  with  commerce  or  literature ; 
by  reporters,  who  prepare  the  proceedings  of  public  assem 
blies  ;  and  by  correspondents,  who  furnish  information  on 
every  subject  of  public  interest.  Weekly  papers  are  com 
monly  published  on  Saturday  of  each  week,  and  daily 
papers  in  the  morning  or  evening ;  and  as  most  of  the 
latest  news  is  received  through  the  telegraph,  it  is  fre 
quently  the  case  that  an  evening  paper  will  publish  infor 
mation  of  an  event  which  may  have  taken  place  in  Europe 
on  the  morning  of  the  same  day.  With  regard  to  what  is 
called  the  liberty  of  the  press,  in  times  of  peace,  it  is  quite 
unbounded;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  rights  of  private 
citizens  are  not  always  respected  ;  but  while  an  editor  may 
not  be  interfered  with  by  the  government  for  expressing  his 
opinions,  provided  they  are  not  immoral,  it  is  too  often  the 
case  that  his  real  independence  is  materially  affected  by  the 
allurements  or  dictation  of  the  political  party  to  which  he 
belongs.  And  then  again,  the  habit  of  dealing  in  person 
alities  is  perhaps  more  prevalent  among  the  newspaper  writ 
ers  of  America  than  among  any  other  people  ;  the  excess 
es  in  this  direction  sometimes  lead  to  bitter  conflicts  and 
even  to  untimely  deaths  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  all  the  more 
notorious  abuses  of  the  press  are  frowned  upon  by  the  bet 
ter  classes  in  every  community.  Notwithstanding  its 
many  drawbacks,  the  conclusion  is  inevitable,  that  the  Press 
of  America  is  the  leading  civilizer  of  its  multifarious  pop 
ulation,  and  the  particular  engine  which  has  brought  about 
the  present  prosperous  condition  of  the  Republic. 

Our  next  topic  for  consideration  is  the  artistic  life  of 
America,  as  we  find  it  developed  in  the  pursuits  of  paint 
ing,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  The  number  of  persons 


288  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   1^  AMERICA. 

engaged  in  these  various  employments  is  not  large,  but  they 
are  necessarily  men  of  culture;  exert  a  great  influence  in 
developing  the  taste  of  the  people  generally  ;  and  they  con 
gregate  and  find  employment  chiefly  in  the  larger  cities. 
The  painters  are  of  several  kinds,  viz. :  portrait  painters, 
historical  painters,  landscape  painters,  and  various  subor 
dinate  classes  who  produce  miscellaneous  pictures.  The 
materials  most  commonly  used  are  oil-colors  and  canvas; 
and  while  the  majority  of  these  artists  manage  to  support 
themselves  in  comfort,  those  who  happen  to  become  fashion 
able,  or  possess  extraordinary  ability,  frequently  meet  with 
great  success.  While  it  is  true  that  good  portraits  may  be 
obtained  for  fifty  or  one  hundred  dollars,  it  is  also  true  that 
five  thousand  dollars  is  not  an  uncommon  price  for  very 
superior  portraits  ;  and,  according  to  circumstances,  the 
prices  paid  for  pictures  of  scenery  range  from  fifty  dollars 
to  ten  thousand  dollars.  In  these  two  departments,  the 
American  artists  are  perhaps  equal  to  those  of  Europe  ; — but 
with  regard  to  historical  paintings,  the  English,  French,  and 
German  artists  are  all  in  advance  of  the  Americans.  Gener 
ally  speaking,  before  a  man  can  become  expert  in  the  art 
of  painting,  he  has  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  and 
this  study  has  come  to  be  so  common  and  popular  that 
many  artists  confine  themselves  to  drawing  alone,  and  hence 
the  kind  of  pictures  known  as  engravings,  which  are  merely 
copies  of  drawings,  as  well  as  paintings,  have  almost  a  uni 
versal  circulation.  They  are  executed  on  steel,  on  copper, 
on  stone,  and  on  wood,  and  used  extensively  in  books,  and 
weekly  and  monthly  periodicals.  To  what  extent  this  is 
true,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  single  illustrated  journal, 
published  in  New  York,  is  said  to  have  a  circulation  of 


LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,   AND   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  289 

three  hundred  thousand  copies.  And  then  again,  large  num 
bers  of  engravings  are  prepared  and  published,  which  are 
used  for  the  adornment  of  the  houses  of  the  people,  as  is 
the  case  with  paintings,  as  well  as  photographs,  and  chromo 
lithographs,  which  latter  classes  of  pictures  have  come  to 
be  more  popular  than  any  others.  The  custom  of  hanging 
pictures  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  is  a  leading  characteristic 
among  the  Americans ;  and  while  the  poor  mechanic  or  farm 
er  maybe  content  with  a  few  cheap  engravings  or  photo 
graphs,  men  of  wealth  are  very  much  in  the  habit  of  spend 
ing  thousands  upon  thousands  of  dollars  for  works  of  art 
of  the  highest  order.  Many  of  the  private  collections  thus 
formed  are  really  of  a  princely  character;  and  then,  in  all 
the  leading  cities,  they  have  extensive  public  collections  of 
pictures,  with  which  are  commonly  associated  certain 
schools  for  imparting  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  fine  arts. 
The  extent  to  which  the  General  Government  patronizes 
the  art  of  painting  is  limited  to  a  few  historical  produc 
tions,  including  compositions  and  portraits,  to  be  found 
in  the  Capitol  and  Executive  Mansion. 

As  the  art  of  sculpture  is  far  less  popular  among  the  peo 
ple  than  that  of  painting,  we  find  the  sculptors  reduced  to 
a  small  number.  Among  them,  however,  are  to  be  found 
some  few  men  of  great  abilities  and  extensive  reputations. 
It  is  claimed,  indeed,  that  the  United  States  has  gained,  in 
sculpture,  a  far  higher  rank  than  in  any  of  the  fine  arts. 
The  works  here  produced  are  generally  executed  in  white 
marble,  though  sometimes  in  bronze,  and  in  the  great  ma 
jority  of  instances  represent  the  busts  or  full-length  figures 
of  distinguished  men.  This  style  of  art  is  always  expensive, 
and  it  is  only  the  rich  who  can  afford  to  perpetuate  the 

13 


290  LIFE   AXD   [RESOURCES   IX   AMERICA. 

features  of  their  family-friends  in  this  manner.  When  in 
tended  for  exhibition  in  private  dwellings,  or  in  galleries  of 
art,  these  productions  are  usually  of  the  size  of  life,  but 
when  intended  for  the  adornment  of  private  gardens  or 
public  grounds,  they  are  of  colossal  size,  and  noted  military 
men  are  occasionally  represented  mounted  on  horses.  The 
chief  patrons  of  this  kind  of  art  are  the  National  and  State 
Governments,  and  hence  busts  and  statues  are  to  be  found 
stationed,  to  some  extent,  in  the  public  buildings  in  Wash 
ington,  and  in  the  capitals  of  the  several  States.  In  the 
National  Capitol  a  large  and  handsome  hall  has  been  appro 
priated  entirely  to  the  reception  of  busts  and  statues  of  cel 
ebrated  statesmen,  and  military  aqd  naval  commanders ; — • 
and  in  this  connection,  a  law  has  been  passed,  granting  the 
privilege  to  each  State  in  the  Union,  to  send  to  this  central 
exhibition-place,  a  portrait,  in  marble,  of  any  two  men 
which  the  State  authorities  may  choose  to  honor  in  this 
manner.  When  copies  of  marble  or  bronze  productions 
are  desired  by  private  individuals,  and  the  means  of  the  per 
son  wanting  them  are  limited,  it  is  frequently  the  case  that 
a  kind  of  white  plaster  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  more 
enduring  materials ;  and  this  composition  is  employed,  to  a 
great  extent,  in  reproducing  the  ancient  and  more  celebrated 
works  of  sculpture  in  Europe,  which  are  brought  to  Amer 
ica  to  serve  as  models  in  the  art-schools  of  the  country. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  Uni 
ted  States  in  the  way  of  architecture.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
country  the  abundance  of  wood,  and  the  ease  of  preparing 
it,  made  it  the  universal  building  material,  and  for  a  long 
time  hardly  anything  else  was  used  ;  although  for  buildings 
of  importance  brick  was  brought  from  England.  The  haste 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,   AND   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  291 

to  get  shelter,  and  the  availability  of  wood,  make  this  still 
the  common  material — almost  the  only  one  used — in  the 
new  cities  of  the  Western  States  and  Territories.  The  re 
cent  terrible  fire  at  Chicago  is  an  illustration,  in  part,  of 
this  fact,  and  of  the  evils  of  building  with  wood  alone.  But 
within  the  present  century  much  brick  has  been  made,  and 
stone-quarries  have  been  opened  all  over  the  country.  In 
the  older  cities,  brick  and  stone,  in  connection  with  iron,  are 
now  almost  entirely  employed,  certain  varieties  of  stone 
being  used  for  all  the  most  important  buildings.  The  New 
England  States  furnish  a  great  deal  of  granite  and  sienite, 
which  are  very  strong  and  durable  stones,  but  too  hard 
and  rough  for  finely  cut  or  ornamental  work.  There  is 
much  sandstone  in  the  Middle  States,  and  in  the  West  are 
many  kinds  of  sand  and  limestone,  which  are  easily  cut,  and 
receive  readily  the  richest  ornamentation.  There  is  also 
throughout  the  United  States  a  great  variety  of  white  and 
colored  marbles,  much  used  in  ornamental  and  decorative 
work;  and  many  elaborate  buildings  are  built  of  them. 

Before  the  present  century  architects  were  few  in  Amer 
ica  and  of  little  skill ;  buildings  were  designed,  for  the 
most  part,  by  the  men  who  built  them.  But  the  gain  of 
the  community  in  wealth  and  leisure  has  greatly  developed 
the  profession  in  the  present  generation.  The  earlier  archi 
tects  worked  only  by  English  traditions,  which  were,  in 
their  turn,  derived  from  the  Italian  architects  of  the  six 
teenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  earlier  architects 
of  this  country  usually  obtained  their  professional  educa 
tion  in  Europe,  where  the  advantages  were  numerous;  at 
the  present  time,  however,  young  Americans  find  excellent 
opportunities  in  the  offices  of  the  better-trained  architects 


292  LIFE   A^D   KESOUKCES   1^   AMERICA. 

at  home.  The  multiplication  of  prints,  photographs,  and 
casts  in  plaster  from  the  best  old  examples,  have  greatly 
facilitated  study ;  schools  .of  architecture  have  been  estab 
lished  in  several  of  the  educational  institutions  of  the 
country ;  and  in  New  York  they  have  an  American  Insti 
tute  of  Architects,  which  is  represented  in  all  the  leading 
cities  of  the  country  by  what  they  call  "  Chapters,"  and 
which  are  said  to  exercise  an  important  influence  within 
their  proper  sphere.  The  styles  of  architecture  employed 
in  America  are  as  various  as  possible,  but  perhaps  the  kind 
of  buildings  in  which  the  United  States  architects  are  most 
successful  is  that  of  wooden  villas,  which  are  often  both 
beautiful  and  convenient.  It  has  been  charged  against  the 
Americans,  that  in  regard  to  architecture,  if  nothing  else, 
they  lay  more  stress  upon  the  idea  of  a  conventional  beauty, 
than  upon  substantial  usefulness.  A  church  may  be  beau 
tiful  to  the  eye,  but  filled  with  uncomfortable  seats  and  a 
perpetual  darkness ;  a  public  building  may  be  very  orna 
mental,  but  badly  ventilated ;  and  a  dwelling  may  appear 
like  a  palace,  and  in  reality  be  without  a  single  comfort. 
Notwithstanding  the  immense  amounts  of  money  which 
are  annually  expended  in  America  upon  fine  buildings,  it  is 
claimed  that  there  is  much  room  for  improvement ;  and  it 
is  a  creditable  truth,  that  a  great  impetus  has  recently 
beer,  given  to  the  art  of  architecture  by  the  patronage  of 
the  General  Government,  whose  buildings  are  numerous, 
and  among  the  most  extensive  and  imposing  in  the  Repub 
lic.  In  this  connection,  one  fact  which  seems  amazing,  and 
is,  indeed,  a  subject  of  remark,  is  this :  that  there  now  stands, 
in  the  city  of  Washington,  a  monument  to  the  memory  of 
George  Washington,  who  is  called  the  Father  of  his  Coun- 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,   AND   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  293 

try,  which  was  commenced  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and 
is  yet  unfinished,  and  a  painful  spectacle  to  all  the  world. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  science  in  America,  but  before 
doing  so  it  may  be  proper  to  make  some  remarks  in  regard 
to  science  in  general.  The  term  science,  in  its  more 
restricted  sense,  is  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  nature,  or 
how  the  changes  in  the  natural  world  are  produced.  In  a 
more  general  sense,  it  is  used  to  include  descriptive  natural 
history,  from  which  it  differs  in  this,  that  the  latter 
classifies  and  describes  things  or  objects  in  nature,  as  they 
exist,  without  considering  their  origin  or  the  changes  to 
which  they  are  subjected.  Science,  then,  although  founded 
on  the  results  of  experiments  and  observations,  does  not 
consist  in  collections  of  isolated  facts,  but  in  general 
principles,  from  which  special  facts  can  be  deduced  when 
certain  conditions  are  known.  Thus,  the  phenomena  of 
astronomy  are  all  referred  to  principles  which  are  denomi 
nated  the  laws  of  force  and  motion.  By  means  of  these 
laws,  if  the  relative  mass,  position,  and  velocity  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  are  known  at  a  given  epoch,  their  relative 
position  for  all  times,  in  the  remotest  past  as  well  as  in  the 
distant  future,  can  be  calculated.  Other  phenomena  are 
referred  to  other  laws,  such  as  those  of  light,  heat,  electric 
ity,  navigation,  chemical  action,  life,  and  organization. 
These  laws  are  generally  expressed  in  the  form  of  theories, 
by  which  they  can  be  more  readily  understood  and  applied, 
either  in  the  way  of  practical  inventions,  or  in  the  discovery 
of  new  truths.  The  knowledge  of  a  law  of  nature  enables 
the  savant  to  explain,  predict,  and  in  some  cases  to  control 
the  phenomena  to  which  these  laws  pertain.  These 
characteristics  of  science  afford  the  means  of  clearly  dis- 


294  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IK   AMERICA. 

tin  finishing  between  the  expressions  of  real  truths  or  laws, 
and  the  mere  vague  speculations  with  which  the  principles 
of  science  are  often  confounded.  It  is  by  the  discovery 
and  application  of  these  laws  that  modern  civilization  differs 
essentially  from  that  of  ancient  times,  and  also  from  the 
civilization  of  China  and  Japan.  In  these  countries  the 
arts  of  life  are  based  upon  facts  accidentally  discovered, 
which  lie,  as  it  were,  on  the  face  of  nature,  are  few  in 
number,  and  soon  exhausted ;  while  in  Europe  and  North 
America  the  various  inventions  which  add  so  much  to  the 
material  wrell-being  of  man  are  derived  from  the  endless 
stores  of  facts  deduced  from  scientific  principles.  It  is  by 
a  knowledge  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  heat,  electricity,  and 
chemical  action,  that  these  powers  are  rendered  obedient 
and  efficient  slaves,  by  which  man  emancipates  himself 
from  the  bondage  of  brute  labors,  to  which  in  ancient 
times  he  was  universally  subjected;  while,  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  light  and  of  sound,  the  infirmities  of  age  are 
remedied,  and  the  range  of  human  senses  indefinitely 
extended.  By  the  constant  study  of  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  irrespective  of  the  use  which  may  flow  from  them, 
our  knowledge  is  continually  increased,  while  from  the 
discovery  of  every  new  principle  in  science  many  applica 
tions  in  art  usually  follow.  It  is  this  which  is  understood 
by  the  Baconian  aphorism — "Knowledge  is  power." 
There  are  at  the  present  time,  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world,  men  who  are  devoting  their  thoughts  and  time  to 
the  investigations  of  the  various  phenomena  of  nature ;  and 
through  the  intercourse  which  is  established  between  all 
parts  of  the  world,  the  discoveries  made  by  each  become 
the  knowledge  of  all,  and  in  this  way  science  is  rapidly 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,  AND   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  295 

increasing.  Moreover,  whatever  is  discovered  in  one 
portion  of  the  domain  of  nature,  as  a  general  rule,  tends  to 
reflect  light  on  various  other  portions,  and  also  to  furnish 
instruments  for  more  extended  and  varied  research. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  remarks,  that  the 
country  is  most  highly  civilized, — at  least  in  one  direction, 
— which  makes  the  best  provision  for  the  investigation  of 
abstract  science.  Of  all  nations  at  present  existing,  Prussia 
appears  to  be  the  most  advanced  in  this  respect.  When 
ever  an  individual  is  found  capable  of  making  original  dis 
coveries,  in  that  country,  he  is  at  once  consecrated  to 
science.  lie  is  elected  a  higher  professor  in  one  of  the 
universities,  receives  a  liberal  salary,  is  supplied  with  all 
the  implements  necessary  for  research  in  his  special  line, 
and  is  allowed  full  time  for  his  investigations ;  being  re 
quired  to  give  but  few  lectures  on  higher  subjects,  while 
the  teaching  and  the  drilling  of  pupils  are  performed  by 
men  of  inferior  talents.  In  the  United  States,  where  so 
much  is  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  subduing  nature  and 
developing  the  resources  of  a  new  country,  there  has  been, 
consequently,  a  great  demand  for  the  application  of 
science,  and  less  attention  has  been  given,  until  of  late, 
to  encourage  and  sustain  original  invention. 

One  effect  of  the  general  diffusion  of  education  in  the 
United  States,  especially  in  New  England,  has  been  to  ren 
der  the  people  impatient  as  to  mere  manual  labor,  and 
hence,  from  the  scarcity  of  laborers,  and  the  great  demand 
for  them,  a  large  amount  of  talent  has  been  devoted  to  the 
invention  of  labor-saving  machines.  There  are  no  people 
in  the  world  who  make  so  many  inventions  as  the  Ameri 
cans,  which  fact  is  evinced  by  the  number  and  variety  of 


296  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   LN"   AMERICA, 

models  in  the  Patent  Office.     There  is.  however,  a 

" 

inclination  on  the  part  of  the  Government  and  of  wealthy 
individuals  to  endow  establishments  for  the  advance  of 
pure  science.  The  Government  has  established  the  National 
Observatory,  which  is  supported  at  an  annual  expense  of 
not  less  than  seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  and  in  which 
the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  continuously  stud 
ied,  new  facts  observed,  and  new  deductions  from  them 
constantly  made.  There  has  also  been  established  a 
Bureau  for  the  calculation  of  a  Nautical  Almanac,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  furnish  mariners  with  the  means  for 
determining  their  position  on  the  ocean,  while  it  also  con 
tributes  to  the  advance  of  science  by  original  mathemati 
cal  deductions  from  facts  which  have  been  observed.  An 
extended  work  called  the  Coast  Survey  has  likewise  been 
established,  the  object  of  which  is  to  furnish  accurate 
maps,  by  means  of  astronomical  determinations,  of  the 
whole  coast  of  the  country,  but  which  also  is  developing, 
in  its  operations,  new  facts  of  the  highest  interest  to  science. 
Among  those  are  the  laws  of  the  variation,  direction,  and 
intensity  of  terrestrial  magnetism — the  form  and  dimensions 
of  the  earth — the  variation  of  the  force  of  terrestrial  gravi 
tation  on  the  different  portions  of  the  earth's  surface — the 
knowledge  of  organized  beings  which  live  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean,  within  soundings — and  temperature,  motion, 
and  magnitude  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which,  in  passing 
across  the  Atlantic  ocean,  moderates  the  temperature,  and 
gives  a  genial  climate  to  the  north  of  Europe.  Another  of 
the  Government  establishments  which  advances  science  is 
the  office  of  Weights  and  Measures,  in  which  a  series  of 
investigations  are  carried  on,  for  determining  the  expansion 


LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,  AXD    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.  297 

of  bodies  and  the  best  manner  of  making  accurate  stand 
ards  of  measure,  of  length,  weight,  and  capacity.  The 
Government  also  has  its  schools  of  applied  science;  one 
at  West  Point,  for  the  education  of  officers  of  the  army  in 
all  things  pertaining  to  military  life  and  operations ;  and 
another  at  Annapolis,  for  the  education  of  naval  officers 
in  all  matters  connected  with  the  naval  service.  Of  late 
years,  moreover,  numerous  surveys  and  explorations  have 
been  made  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  across  the 
Continent,  which  have  tended,  not  only  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  country,  but  have  afforded  means  for  the 
critical  study  of  the  geology,  mineralogy,  and  natural  his 
tory  of  the  regions  traversed,  and  which  have  resulted  in 
the  construction  of  the  celebrated  railroad  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  In  many  of  the  older  States 
of  the  Union  there  have  been  instituted  geological  sur 
veys,  which,  while  they  have  served  to  discover  the  pecu 
liar  mineral  treasures  within  the  State  limits,  have  greatly 
added  to  the  science  of  geology  as  well  as  to  natural 
history.  The  ostensible  object  of  all  these  establishments 
of  the  General  Government,  as  well  as  those  of  the  sepa 
rate  States,  is  practical  utility,  although  abstract  science  is 
greatly  advanced  by  means  of  them. 

In  various  parts  of  the  country  astronomical  observa 
tories  have  been  erected  in  connection  writh  some  of  the 
principal  universities  and  colleges,  but  in  them,  with  but 
few  exceptions,  original  investigations  are  subordinate  to 
the  business  of  education.  There  are  also  connected  with 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  scientific  schools,  the 
object  of  which  is  generally  to  teach  the  principles  of 

science,  as  far  as  they  are  applicable  to  civil  and  mining  en- 

13* 


298  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   I3T   AMERICA. 

gineering,  and  the  various  manufactures  which  depend 
upon  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  physics.  The  pro 
fessors  in  universities  and  colleges  are  the  principal  con 
tributors  to  the  scientific  journals  of  the  day,  in  which  the 
progress  of  science  is  recorded.  There  is  no  civilized  coun 
try  in  which  there  appears  to  be  a  greater  taste  for  a 
knowledge  of  general  scientific  results,  or  in  which  a  greater 
number  of  popular  scientific  works  are  read  than  in  the 
United  States.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  scarcely  any 
country  in  which  original  talents,  applied  to  pure  scientific 
investigation,  meet  with  less  reward.  In  France  and  other 
European  countries  there  are  Academies  of  Science,  con 
sisting  of  a  limited  number  of  the  most  distinguished 
individuals,  and  supported  by  Government,  each  member 
receiving  a  salary,  besides  marks  of  social  distinction.  To 
become  a  member  of  one  of  these  academies  is  an  object  of 
the  highest  ambition,  to  which  is  directed  the  best  mind 
of  the  community.  In  Great  Britain  there  are  no  such 
academies,  yet  the  Government  makes  yearly  grants  for 
scientific  investigations  ;  and  individuals,  distinguished  for 
their  scientific  discoveries,  not  only  receive  pensions,  but 
are  honored  by  the  titles  of  barons  and  knights.  Xo  ade 
quate  inducements  are  yet  held  out  in  the  United  States, 
as  a  stimulus  to  scientific  investigation,  but  for  scientific 
invention  or  the  application  of  science  to  useful  arts,  there 
is  frequently  an  abundant  remuneration.  Notwithstanding 
these  drawbacks,  much  has  been  done  and  is  doing,  in  the 
way  of  advancing  science,  as  is  evinced  by  the  transactions 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  of  Philadelphia,  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  of  Boston, 
the  publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  of  the 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,  AND   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.  299 

Natural  History  Societies  and  Academies  of  Boston,  Salem, 
Philadelphia,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  New  Orleans. 
All  these  institutions  were  established  and  are  sustained  by 
private  individuals.  To  the  above  may  be  .added  the  Amer 
ican  Journal  of  Science  in  New  Haven,  and  the  Journal  of 
the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia. 

A  large  portion  of  the  scientific  labor  of  the  United 
States  has  been  devoted  to  descriptive  natural  history,  to 
which  attention  was  invited  by  the  almost  unbounded  field 
which  was  presented  for  study  in  the  mineral,  vegetable, 
and  animal  kingdoms,  and  because  a  knowledge  derived 
from  these  was  intimately  connected  with  the  development 
of  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  Science 
should,  however,  be  studied  for  its  own  sake,  without  re 
gard  to  its  immediate  application,  since  nothing  tends  more 
to  extend  the  bounds  of  thought,  to  add  to  the  intellectual 
powers  of  man,  and  to  raise  him  in  the  scale  of  intelligence, 
than  the  study  and  contemplation  of  the  operations  of 
nature ;  and  we  are  happy  to  think  that,  as  we  have  said 
before,  there  is  in  this  great  country  a  growing  apprecia 
tion  of  the  importance  of  abstract  science,  and  that  many 
institutions  in  various  parts  of  it  will  be  established,  through 
the  enlightened  policy  of  wealthy  individuals,  for  its  culti 
vation  and  advancement.  A  conspicuous  example  of  what 
has  been  done  in  this  line  is  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
founded  in  Washington  by  James  Smithson,  of  England, 
for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men. 
The  founder  was  devoted  to  scientific  investigation,  and, 
under  the  impulse  of  his  ruling  passion,  bequeathed  his 
entire  property  for  a  similar  purpose.  It  is  as  yet  the  only 
well-endowed  institution  in  America  which  is  intended 


300  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   1^  AMERICA. 

exclusively  for  the  advancement  of  abstract  science.  But 
through  the  influence  which  it  has  attained  by  the  perse 
vering  effort  of  its  director,  Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  and  the 
example  which  it  has  set,  it  is  thought  that  other  institu 
tions  of  a  similar  character  will  be  founded.  Indeed,  sev 
eral  wealthy  individuals  have  already,  independently  of 
each  other,  made  appropriations  for  scientific  investigations. 
Foremost  among  these  in  liberality,  and  more  especially  as 
a  man  of  science,  may  be  mentioned  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache,  the 
late  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  who  left  the  sum 
of  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  scientific  experiments  and 
observations,  the  first  proceeds  of  which  are  now  being 
devoted  to  a  magnetic  survey  of  the  United  States,  the 
results  of  which  will  be  published  and  distributed  to  all 
parts  of  the  world. 


LIFE  AMONG-  THE  MIJSTEES. 


IT  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  the  mineral  re 
sources  of  the  United  States  are  more  extensive  and  varied 
than  those  of  any  other  country  in  the  world.  Indeed,  to 
give  anything  like  a  minute  account  of  them  would  till 
many  volumes ;  and  therefore,  with  a  view  of  being  brief, 
we  propose  to  submit  a  few  facts  on  the  leading  mineral 
productions  of  the  country,  beginning  with  the  precious 
metals. 

Qold  has  been  found  in  about  one-half  of  the  States  of 
the  Union.  Prior  to  the  year  1848  this  metal,  as  well  as 
silver,  was  chiefly  obtained  from  Virginia,  Tennessee,  the 
Carolinas,  and  Georgia ;  at  the  present  time  the  States  of 
California,  Oregon,  and  Nevada,  and  the  Territories  of 
Washington,  Idaho,  Arizona,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Mon 
tana,  Dakota,  and  Wyoming,  are  by  far  the  most  produc 
tive  gold-fields  on  the  globe ;  and  throughout  all  this  re 
gion  many  other  valuable  minerals  are  found,  but  silver 
is  the  most  important.  At  the  time  of  the  great  discover 
ies  in  California,  the  annual  production  of  the  whole 
world  was  only  $20,000,000,  but  in  seven  years  from 
that  time,  California  alone  yielded  $60,000,000,  and  its 
recent  annual  production  has  been  fixed  at  $80,000,000. 
The  total  gold  and  silver  product  of  the  United  States, 
down  to  the  year  1868,  was  estimated  at  $1,255,000,000, 
and  never  before  in  the  history  of  the  world  have 


302  LIFE   A:NT>   RESOURCES   Itf   AMERICA. 

so  few  people  established  so  extensive  a  business. 
The  region  where  gold  is  found  covers  an  area  of 
1,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  chiefly  the  property  of 
the  nation.  Hand-washing,  as  we  have  been  informed  by 
a  man  of  experience  in  these  matters,  was  the  earliest  mode 
of  collecting  gold,  and  the  pan  and  the  rocker  were  the 
first  implements  used  in  California  mining.  Quicksilver 
was  soon  employed  to  collect  the  fine  particles,  often  lost 
in  hand-washing.  Hydraulic  mining,  now  largely  used  in 
California,  is  done  by  throwing  currents  of  water,  from 
hose  and  pipes,  with  enormous  force  against  banks  of  earth, 
cutting  away  whole  hills.  Down  the  face  of  the  hills,  also, 
pour  artificial  streams.  At  the  foot,  the  waters  all  pass 
away  in  long  flumes  or  wooden  troughs,  carrying  the  earth 
and  stones  with  them.  Slats  on  the  bottom  of  the  flumes 
catch  and  retain  the  gold ;  and  where  gold  is  found  in  hard 
quartz,  the  stones  are  ground  to  powder  by  machinery 
and  stamp-mills,  and  the  gold  thus  comes  to  the  light,  and 
quicksilver  separates  it  from  the  dust.  Silver  is  never 
found  like  gold,  in  grains  among  the  sand,  but  in  ores  or 
quartz,  from  which  it  has  to  be  reduced  by  stamping  or 
grinding,  or  by  smelting.  It  is  found  in  a  variety  of  ores, 
usually  associated  with  gold,  copper,  or  lead.  Pure  masses 
are  occasionally  found  among  the  copper  mines  of  Lake 
Superior,  and  also  in  Nevada  and  Idaho.  The  discovery 
of  the  rich  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  in  California  gave 
new  impetus  to  the  movements  of  population  everywhere, 
stimulated  all  departments  of  industry,  brought  together 
into  the  same  communities  people  from  every  part  of  the 
globe,  settled  the  vast  territories  of  the  United  States, 
facilitated  intercourse  between  the  nations,  and,  with  the 


LIFE   AMOXG   THE   MIXERS.  303 

mining  operations   in  Australia,  has  steadily  changed  val 
ues  throughout  the  world. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  immense  amount  of  treasure 
that  has  been  taken  from  the  soils  and  rocks  of  California 
and  other  Pacific  States,  the  business  of  mining  has  not 
been  profitable  with  the  majority  of  miners.  Indeed,  it  is 
said  that  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  the  farmers  of  Illinois 
have  more  frequently  made  fortunes  than  have  the  gold- 
hunters  of  the  West.  In  1865  a  miner  of  California  named 
Jules  Fricot  realized  the  sum  of  $182,511  by  quartz  min 
ing,  and  since  then  a  man  named  James  P.  Pierce,  from 
placer  mine  obtained  in  one  year  the  sum  of  $102,011, — 
but  these  were  exceptional  cases.  The  cost  of  living  at 
the  mines  is  always  expensive,  and  the  accommodations 
anything  but  comfortable.  At  the  general  eating-houses 
which  are  established  among  the  mines,  they  commonly 
charge  one  dollar  for  a  single  meal,  and  twelve  dollars  per 
week  for  board, — the  sleeping  accommodations  being  a 
bare  floor  and  a  pair  of  blankets.  According  to  the 
latest  authentic  data,  the  number  of  miners  in  California 
alone  was  46,550,  of  whom  20,800  were  Chinese,  and  the 
wages  of  these  men  ranged  from  three  to  five  dollars  per 
day.  The  national  laws  bearing  upon  the  mining  region 
of  the  Pacific  Slope  are  not,  as  yet,  what  they  should  be; 
but  those  which  have  been  enacted  provide  for  two  classes 
of  miners, — those  who  are  licensed  to  work  upon  the  public 
domain,  and  those  who  become  actual  proprietors  by  pur 
chase  from  the  Government.  The  right  is  also  granted 
to  men,  to  purchase  and  work  such  mines  as  they  may  dis 
cover;  and  as  to  the  mining  customs, — mandatory  edicts 
are  passed,  at  twenty-four  hours'  notice,  by  from  five  to 


304  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IN"   AMERICA. 

five  hundred   men,  which,  for  the  time  being,  are  the  law 
of  the  land. 

And  now,  in  closing  these  remarks,  let  us  glance  at  what 
has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  precious 
metals.  The  drain  of  them  has  hitherto  been  toward  the 
East,  where  they  are  used  for  hoarding  and  for  ornaments, 
rather  than  for  money.  This  is  particularly  true  of  silver. 
Between  the  years  1850  and  1864,  there  were  exported  to 
Asia  from  England  and  the  Mediterranean,  more  than 
$650,000,000.  The  total  amount  of  silver  in  the  world  is 
estimated  at  $10,000,000,000,  or  only  enough  to  pay  the 
debts  of  three  or  four  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  present 
time.  The  coining  of  gold  and  silver,  as  well  as  copper, 
was  commenced  by  the  United  States  in  1793,  and  the 
total  product  of  each  metal,  down  to  the  middle  of  1870, 
was  as  follows  :  Gold,  $971,628,046  ;  silver,  $143,760,474; 
copper,  $11,009,048  ;  or  a  grand  total  of  $1,126,397,569. 

Of  the  baser  metals  which  have  hitherto  been  employed 
in  the  coining  of  money,  copper  is  the  most  important. 
Its  most  valuable  alloy  is  brass,  out  of  which  a  very  large 
number  of  useful  things  are  manufactured.  Another  alloy, 
known  as  "French  gold,"  is  extensively  used  in  the  manu 
facture  of  cheap  jewelry  and  watches.  Copper  is  found  in 
ores  and  in  a  metallic  state,  and  was  first  mined  on  the 
American  Continent  in  New  England.  It  has  been  worked 
in  seven  or  eight  of  the  United  States,  but,  practically,  all 
the  copper  product  of  the  Union  comes  from  Lake  Supe 
rior,  which  was  almost  an  unknown  wilderness  as  late  as 
the  year  1843.  It  is  found  in  a  ridge  of  trap-rock,  on  the 
shores  belonging  to  Michigan,  and  masses  of  the  solid 
metal  have  been  discovered  weighing  several  tons.  The 


LIFE   AMOXG    THE    MIXERS.  305 

mines  were  opened  there  in  1845,  since  which  time  the 
total  yield  has  been  not  far  from  150,000  tons.  It  is 
extracted  from  its  ores  by  smelting  and  calcination,  and 
prepared  for  the  market  in  ingots,  which  are  converted 
into  sheets  by  rolling  mills,  established  chiefly  in  the 
Atlantic  States.  Situated  as  are  the  copper  mines  of 
Michigan,  in  a  region  where  the  winters  are  long  and  the 
summers  short,  the  miners  are  subject  to  many  hardships 
from  the  cold,  and  to  many  privations  in  the  way  of  bodily 
comforts.  A  large  proportion  of  them  are  men  who  have 
had  experience  in  the  mines  of  Great  Britain  and  other 
countries,  and  their  compensation  is  not  on  a  par  with 
their  habits  of  industry  and  their  experience,  but  the  quan 
tity  of  metal  which  they  obtain  from  the  earth  and  send  to 
market  is  very  large. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  precious  metals,  come  the 
coal  productions  of  the  United  States,  the  two  prominent 
varieties  of  which  bear  the  names  of  anthracite  and  bitu 
minous.  The  largest  producer  of  both  is  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania;  and  in  the  production  of  the  former,  Rhode 
Island  stands  second ;  and  Ohio  occupies  the  second  posi 
tion  in  regard  to  bituminous  coal.  The  area  of  workable 
coal-beds  in  the  United  States,  excluding  Alaska,  is  esti 
mated  at  200,000  square  miles,  which  is  said  to  be  eight 
times  as  large  as  the  available  coal  area  of  all  the  rest  of 
the  world.  The  coal-veins  are  usually  reached  by  vertical 
shafts,  but  when  found  in  hills  are  wrorked  by  horizontal 
galleries.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  perpendicular 
shafts  are  employed  to  secure  thorough  ventilation,  and 
safety-lamps  are  used  to  prevent  the  ignition  of  the  fatal 
fire-damp,  many  serious  accidents  have  happened  in  the 


306  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

mines  of  Pennsylvania.     The  first  railway  for  the  trans 
mission  of"  coal  from  the  mines  was  built  in  1827,  and  the 
coal  mines  now  give  employment  to  more  than  forty  rail 
roads  and  canals.     It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  a  train 
of  100  cars  to  enter  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  loaded  with 
anthracite,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Baltimore,  which 
is  the  principal  exporting  place  for  bituminous  coal.     The 
total  product  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1868  was 
about  19,000,000  tons,  valued  at  $26,000,000,  since  which 
time  these  figures  have  been  increased,  and  are  still  in 
creasing.   It  is  now  seventy  years  since  anthracite  coal  was 
used  as  fuel  in  this  country,  and  about  forty  years  since  it 
began  to  be  extensively  mined  in  the  United  States ;  and 
it  has  been  stated  by  authentic  writers  on  the  subject,  that 
the  coal-fields    of   the  United  States  are  thirty-six   times 
greater  than  those  of  Great  Britain,  while  the  annual  pro 
duction  of  Britain  is  five  times  greater  than  that   of  the 
United  States.     The  reasons  for  this  great  difference  are 
apparent.     In  many  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  the  climate 
is    so    mild  that    no    coal   is   needed    for    domestic    pur 
poses,  and  when  fuel  is  demanded  for  manufacturing  pur 
poses,  there  is  always  to  be  obtained  an  abundant  supply 
of  wood.     And  then  again,  excepting  the  New  England, 
the  Middle,  and  some  of  the  Western  States,  where  prai 
ries  abound,  the  forests  are  so  numerous  that  it  must  be 
many  years  before  coal  will  become  a  necessity  among  the 
people.     Indeed,  the  very  remarkable  fact  has  been  chron 
icled,  that  in  some  of  the  Western  States,  where  agricul 
ture  is  the  chief  source  of  wealth,   the    article   known   as 
maize,  or  Indian  corn,  has  been  employed  as  fuel.     If,  how 
ever,  we  find  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  in 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS.  307 

America  have  no  immediate  interest  in  the  production  of 
coal,  it  is  at  the  same  time  true,  that  a  very  large  part  of 
the  population  are  consumers  of  what  is  called  coal-oil,  or 
petroleum.  Although  long  known  to  the  scientific  world, 
this  article  did  not  become  known  to  the  commercial  world 
until  1858.  It  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
but  more  extensively  in  western  Pennsylvania  than  in  any 
other  region,  where  very  large  fortunes  have  been  made  by 
persons  engaged  in  drawing  the  precious  liquid  out  of  the 
earth.  Tt  is  obtained  by  means  of  artesian  wells,  which 
are  sunk  from  one  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  into  the 
earth,  and  some  of  which  have  yielded,  with  the  aid  of 
forcing-pumps,  as  much  as  two  thousand  barrels  of  oil  in  a 
single  day.  The  applications  of  petroleum  are  chiefly 
limited  to  purposes  of  illumination  and  lubricating  ma 
chinery,  and  for  the  latter  purpose  the  consumption  is  very 
large  on  the  railroads  and  in  the  manufactories.  A  distil 
lation  of  this  oil  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  certain 
kinds  of  leather,  and  in  the  preparation  of  paints  and  var 
nishes.  This  trade  in  rock-oil  has  become  very  extensive, 
and  is  every  day  becoming  more  and  more  highly  appreci 
ated  as  a  servant  of  civilization ;  the  revenue  which  it 
produces  being  of  great  magnitude,  and  the  number  of 
people  which  it  supports  very  numerous. 

The  next  important  mineral  product  that  we  have  to  no 
tice  is  iron,  recognized  as  the  most  useful  known  to  man. 
It  is  more  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United  States 
than  any  of  the  important  metals  ;  is  found  in  abundance 
in  New  York,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Maryland,  and  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Oregon,  Virginia, 
the  Carolina?,  Alabama,  and  Missouri ;  but  is  chiefly  mined 


308  LIFE   AXD    RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  where  the  yield  is  more 
than  one-half  of  the  whole  product  in  the  United  States,  or 
about  seven  hundred  tons  per  annum,  from  one  hundred 
and  thirty  establishments.  In  Missouri  it  is  found  in  great 
abundance,  where  there  is  a  hill  called  "  Iron  Mountain," 
which  is  more  than  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  is  supposed 
to  contain  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  tons  of  pure 
metal.  Another  well-nigh  solid  iron  mountain  is  called 
"Pilot  Knob,"  nearly  six  hundred  feet  high,  and,  it  is 
thought,  would  furnish  one  million  tons  per  annum  for  two 
hundred  years.  These  two  mountains,  with  another  called 
Shepherd's  Mountain,  also  in  Missouri,  are  considered  among 
the  curiosities  of  America.  And  yet,  with  these  figures  be 
fore  us,  the  astounding  fact  is  proclaimed  that  nearly  half 
a  million  tons  of  iron  were  imported  from  Great  Britain  in 
1868,  while  the  yield  of  the  United  States  was  about  six 
teen  hundred  thousand  tons.  But  the  fact  that  there  should 
be  any  iron  imported  from  England,  grows  out  of  the  oper 
ations  of  the  American  Tariff.  The  great  magnitude  and 
importance  of  the  iron  interest,  which  can  only  be  fully 
treated  in  elaborate  volumes,  is  rendered  difficult  to  notice 
in  a  paragraph  like  the  present.  The  processes  by  which 
the  ores  are  turned  into  metallic  iron  are  as  follows :  In 
what  are  called  bloomeries  and  forges  the  ores  are  conver 
ted  directly  into  malleable  iron,  without  passing  through  the 
intermediate  stage  of  cast  or  pig  iron  ;  and  by  means  of 
blast-furnaces,  the  ores  are  decomposed  as  they  fuse,  in  vast 
quantities  at  a  time,  and  produce  the  cast  or  pig  iron  ; — and 
then  they  have  what  are  called  rolling-mills,  which  convert 
the  iron  into  sheets  and  plates.  With  regard  to  the  uses 
to  which  iron  is  appropriated  in  the  United  States,  they  are 


LIFE    AMONG    THE    MINERS.  309 

well-nigh  infinite ;  and  we  can  only  obtain  an  idea  of  the 
extent  of  its  consumption,  by  reflecting  upon  the  quantity 
of  it  which  is  transferred  into  steel,  for  cutlery  and  machin 
ery  ;  upon  the  extensive  lines  of  railway  in  the  country  and 
the  great  number  of  locomotives  employed  ;  and  upon  man 
ifold  uses  in  connection  with  shipping  and  house-building 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  this  immense  coun 
try. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  production  of  lead  in  the 
United  States.  The  two  most  prominent  deposits  of  this 
useful  mineral  are  to  be  found  in  the  States  of  Missouri  and 
Illinois.  The  working  of  the  former  was  commenced  in 
1 854  and  the  latter  in  1718.  The  largest  supply  comes  from 
those  two  States,  although  it  is  also  found  in  abundance  in 
Wisconsin  and  Iowa.  The  American  lead  is  remarkable 
for  its  softness  and  puritv,  and  although  obtained  with 
comparative  ease,  excepting  what  is  mined  in  Illinois  and 
Iowa,  it  is  not  easily  transported  to  market.  The  total 
production  of  the  Union,  during  the  year  1869,  was  esti 
mated  at  thirty-eight  millions  of  pounds,  while  Spain  pro 
duced  about  sixty  seven  millions,  and  Great  Britain  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  millions  of  pounds  ; — and 
the  imports  into  the  United  States  greatly  exceed  the 
domestic  product.  The  uses  to  which  the  metal  is  applied 
are  very  numerous  and  highly  important.  One  of  the  most 
useful  applications  of  lead  is  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
carbonate,  which  is  extensively  used  as  a  white  paint,  and 
also  as  a  body  for  other  colors.  The  smelling  of  lead  and 

V  O 

the  manufacture  of  the  white  paint  therefrom,  are  considered 
prejudicial  to  health,  and  the  workmen  suffer  much  from 
colic  and  paralysis. 


310  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IX  AMERICA. 

Another  of  the  more  important  minerals  found  in  the 
United  States,  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities,  is  quick 
silver.  It  is  chiefly  mined  in  California,  where  the  annual 
product  is  considerably  more  than  half  the  yield  of  the 
whole  world  beside,  the  total  annual  yield  having  been 
about  six  hundred  thousand  pounds.  Until  recently  the 
mines  of  Spain  controlled  the  Chinese  market,  but  the 
miners  of  California  shipped  a  large  amount  to  Hong  Kong, 
where  they  sold  it  far  below  cost,  and  the  supply  from  Spain 
was  driven  back  to  that  country.  The  English  market  is 
now  supplied  by  Spain  and  the  Chinese  market  by  California. 
Besides  the  countries  named,  Austria  and  Peru  furnish  a 
small  supply  of  this  valuable  mineral.  The  chief  demand 
for  it  is  for  mining  purposes,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
calomel  and  vermilion. 

With  regard  to  the  metals  known  as  tin,  zinc,  platinum, 
nickel,  antimony,  cobalt,  and  other  minor  metals,  they  are 
all  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  none  of 
them  have  as  yet  been  mined  to  any  great  extent.  With 
the  increase  of  population  and  railways,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  business  of  mining  will  grow  into  a  gigantic  national 
interest,  and  that  America  will  lead  the  world  in  the  value 
and  variety  of  her  mineral  products.  The  National  Govern 
ment,  within  the  last  few  years,  has  done  much  to  develop 
the  hidden  resources  of  the  land,  by  sending  forth  com 
petent  scientific  expeditions,  and  publishing  their  results 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public ;  and  the  people  themselves 
have  manifested  their  interest  in  the  subject  by  establishing 
and  supporting  a  number  of  well-conducted  journals  de 
voted  wholly  to  Mining-Engineering. 

In  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  mining  population    of 


LIFE    AMOXG   THE   MINERS.  311 

America,  we  cannot  but  conclude  that  they  are  noted  for 
their  intelligence,  and,  in  view  of  the  hardship  and  pri 
vations  which  they  undergo,  are  not  as  well  paid  as  they 
should  be,  although  better  paid  than  the  mining  people  of 
other  countries.  A  very  large  proportion  of  them,  how 
ever,  are  foreigners,  and  as  they  have  generally  improved 
their  condition  by  emigrating  to  this  country,  they  are 
contented  with  their  lot.  Those  of  them  who  are  en 
gaged  in  mining  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  copper,  in  the  older 
States  of  the  Union,  have  facilities  for  the  education  of 
their  children  at  common-schools,  but  in  the  frontier  States 
and  Territories,  where  the  precious  metals  are  chiefly  found, 
family-men  are  not  abundant,  and  the  opportunities  for 
making  them  comfortable,  and  educating  the  young,  are 
few  and  far  between. 


LIFE    IN    THE   AEMY  A3sTD    NAVY. 


THE  standing  army  of  the  United  States  began  with  the 
foundation  of  the  Government  in  1789,  but,  when  necessary, 
it  has  always  been  customary  to  employ  what  is  called  a 
volunteer  force  or  army.  During  the  war  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  the  number  of  soldiers  employed  was  275,000;  in  the 
war  of  1812,  the  combined  troops  numbered  527,631 ;  dur 
ing  the  Seminole  war  of  1817,  5,611 ;  Black  Hawk  war  of 
1832,  5,031;  Florida  war  of  1842,  29,953;  war  with  Mex 
ico  in  1846,  73,260;  miscellaneous  troubles,  about  20,000  ; 
and  during  the  late  Civil  War,  the  forces  in  the  field,  at  one 
time,  numbered  2,688,523.  The  total  amount  of  money 
expended  by  the  United  States  in  carrying  on  its  various 
wars  was  $3,308,352,706. 

The  regular  army  of  the  United  States  is  at  present  con 
stituted  as  follows:  1  general,  3  major-generals,  16  briga 
dier-generals,  68  colonels,  83  lieutenant-colonels,  271  majors, 
36  aides-de-camp,  532  captains,  40  adjutants  (extra  lieuten 
ants),  40  regimental  quartermasters  (extra  lieutenants),  682 
first  lieutenants,  455  second  lieutenants,  34  chaplains,  29 
military  store-keepers,  5  medical  store-keepers,  40  sergeant- 
majors,  40  quartermaster-sergeants,  40  chief  musicians,  60 
principal  musicians,  10  saddler-sergeants,  10  chief  trumpet 
ers,  151  ordnance-sergeants,  362  hospital  stewards,  430  first 
sergeants,  430  company  quartermaster-sergeants,  1,947  ser 
geants,  1,837  corporals,  240  trumpeters,  654  musicians,  240 


LIFE    i:NT   THE    ARMY    AXD    NAVY.  313 

farriers  or  blacksmiths,  G20  artificers,  120  saddlers,  430 
wagoners,  300  privates  of  the  1st  class  (ordnance  and  en 
gineers),  299  privates  of  the  2d  class  (ordnance  and  en 
gineers),  22,100  privates,  also  one  battalion  sergeant-major, 
and  one  battalion  quartermaster-sergeant;  making  the 
whole  number  of  commissioned  officers  2,263,  and  the 
whole  number  of  enlisted  men  30,000.  There  are,  besides, 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  8  professors  and 
241  cadets,  making  the  total  commissioned  and  enlisted, 
32,512.  The  army  is  sub-divided  into  10  regiments  of  cav 
alry,  5  regiments  of  artillery,  25  regiments  of  infantry,  and 
the  Engineer  Battalion.  Each  regiment  of  cavalry  has  1 
colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  3  majors,  1  adjutant  (extra 
lieutenant),  1  regimental  quartermaster  (extra  lieutenant), 
12  captains,  12  first  lieutenants,  12  second  lieutenants,  1 
sergeant-major,  1  quartermaster-sergeant,  1  chief  musician, 
1  saddler-sergeant,  1  chief  trumpeter,  12  first  sergeants,  12 
company  quartermaster-sergeants,  60  sergeants,  48  corpo 
rals,  24  trumpeters,  24  farriers  and  blacksmiths,  12  saddlers, 
12  wagoners,  and  804  privates.  The  whole  number  of 
commissioned  officers  to  the  regiment  is  44,  and  whole 
number  enlisted  is  1,013,  making  the  aggregate  1,057.  The 
regiment  is  sub-divided  into  12  troops,  each  troop  having  1 
captain,  1  first  lieutenant,  1  second  lieutenant,  1  first  sergeant, 

1  company  quartermaster-sergeant,  5  sergeants,  4  corporals, 

2  trumpeters,  2  farriers  and  blacksmiths,  1  saddler,  1  wag 
oner,  67  privates;    total  commissioned,  3 ;    total  enlisted, 
84 ;  aggregate,  87. 

There  are  5  regiments  of  Artillery,  each  regiment  having 
1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  3  majors,  1  adjutant  (extra 
lieutenant),  1  regimental  quartermaster  (extra  lieutenant), 

14 


314  LIFE    AXD    RESOURCES    IN   AMERICA. 

12  captains,  24  first  lieutenants,  13  second  lieutenants,  1 
sergeant-major,  1  quartermaster-sergeant,  1  chief  musician, 
2  principal  musicians,  12  first  sergeants,  12  company  quar 
termaster-sergeants,  50  sergeants,  48  corporals,  24  musi 
cians,  24  artificers,  12  wagoners,  and  562  privates;  total 
commissioned,  56  ;  total  enlisted,  749  ;  aggregate,  805.  To 
each  regiment  there  are  12  companies,  one  of  which  is 
mounted,  and  is  called  a  light  battery.  A  company  of 
artillery  consists  of  1  captain,  2  first  lieutenants,  1  second 
lieutenant  (light  battery  has  2),  1  first  sergeant,  1  company 
quartermaster-sergeant,  4  sergeants  (light  battery  has  6), 
4  corporals,  2  musicians,  2  artificers,  1  wagoner,  45  privates 
(light  battery  has  67) ;  total  commissioned,  4  (light  bat 
tery  5) ;  total  enlisted,  60  (light  battery  84) ;  aggregate, 
64  (light  battery  89). 

There  are  25  regiments  of  Infantry,  each  having  I 
colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  1  major,  1  adjutant  (extra 
lieutenant),  1  regimental  quartermaster  (extra  lieutenant), 
10  captains,  10  first  lieutenants,  10  second  lieutenants,  1 
sergeant-major,  1  quartermaster-sergeant,  1  chief  musician, 
2  principal  musicians,  10  first  sergeants,  10  company 
quartermaster-sergeants,  40  sergeants,  40  corporals,  20 
musicians,  20  artificers,  10  wagoners,  and  450  privates; 
total  commissioned,  36;  total  enlisted,  605;  aggregate,  641. 
Each  regiment  has  10  companies;  to  each  company  there 
are  1  captain,  1  first  lieutenant,  1  second  lieutenant,  I 
first  sergeant,  1  company  quartermaster-sergeant,  4  ser 
geants,  4  corporals,  2  musicians,  2  artificers,  1  wagoner,  45 
privates;  total  commissioned,  3;  total  enlisted,  60;  aggre 
gate,  63. 

Another  branch  of  the  service  is  the  Engineer  Battalion, 


LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY   AND   NAVY.  315 

which  has  1  major,  1  adjutant,  1  quartermaster,  5  captains, 
5  first  lieutenants,  5  second  lieutenants,  1  sergeant-major, 
1  quartermaster-sergeant,  50  sergeants,  5  corporals,  10 
musicians,  119  privates  of  the  first  class,  119  privates  of 
the  second  class;  total  commissioned,  16  ;  total  enlisted, 
350;  aggregate,  366.  In  the  battalion  there  are  5 
companies,  each  having  1  captain,  1  first  lieutenant,  1 
second  lieutenant,  10  sergeants,  10  corporals,  2  musicians, 
24  privates,  first  class,  24  privates,  second  class;  total 
commissioned,  3  ;  total  enlisted,  70  ;  aggregate,  73. 

The  President  is  by  law  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Army.  To  assist  him  in  the  execution  of  the  laws,  in  so 
far  as  they  relate  to  the  army,  in  its  control,  subsistence, 
and  supply,  a  Secretary  of  War  is  appointed  by  him, 
through  whom  he  exercises  a  general  supervision.  To 
facilitate  this  a  Department  of  War  has  been  established, 
which  is  sub-divided  into  the  following  staff  departments 
or  corps : 

1.  Adjutant-General's  Department. 

2.  Inspector-General's  Department. 

3.  Bureau  of  Military  Justice. 

4.  Quartermaster's  Department. 

5.  Subsistence  Department. 

6.  Medical  Department. 

7.  Pay  Department. 

8.  Signal  Officer. 

9.  Chief  of  Staff  to  the  General  of  the  Army. 

10.  Corps  of  Engineers. 

11.  Ordnance  Department. 

The  general  staff  is  the  central  point  of  military  adminis 
tration.  It  comprises  all  the  officers  concerned  in  regula- 


316  LIFE   AND    RESOURCES   IN    AMERICA. 

ting  the  details  of  the  service,  and  furnishing  the  army 
with  the  means  necessary  for  its  subsistence,  comfort, 
mobility,  and  action. 

All  general  orders  which  emanate  from  the  headquarters 
of  the  army,  the  orders  of  detail,  of  instruction,  of  move 
ment,  and  all  general  regulations  for  the  army,  are  com 
municated  to  the  troops  through  the  office  of  the  Adjutant- 
General. 

The  Adjutant-General  is  charged  with  the  record  of 
military  appointments,  promotions,  resignations,  deaths, 
and  other  casualties;  with  the  registry  and  filling  up  of 
commissions,  and  with  their  distribution ;  with  the  records 
which  relate  to  the  personnel  of  the  army,  and  to  the  mili 
tary  history  of  every  officer  and  soldier;  with  the  duties 
connected  with  the  recruiting  service ;  the  registry  of  the 
names  of  soldiers ;  their  enlistment  and  descriptive  lists, 
and  of  deaths,  desertions,  discharges,  etc.  ;  with  the  pre 
servation  of  monthly  returns  of  regiments  and  posts,  and 
the  muster-rolls  of  companies;  with  receipts  and  examina 
tion  of  applications  for  pension,  previous  to  their  being 
sent  to  the  Pension  Office,  and  of  inventories  of  the  effects 
of  deceased  soldiers. 

The  annual  returns  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States 
and  Territories;  of  the  ordnance,  arms,  accoutrements,  and 
munitions  of  war  appertaining  to  the  same,  required  by 
law  to  be  made  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  are 
filed,  and  the  general  returns  of  the  militia  annually 
required  to  be  laid  before  Congress,  are  also  prepared  and 
consolidated  in  this  office. 

The  Inspector-General's  Department  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  inspecting  and  reporting  upon  the  condition  of  the 


LIFE    IX    THE    ARMY    AXD    XAYY.  317 

forts,  with  their  armaments,  of  the  state  of  discipline  of  the 
troops — in  short,  upon  the  whole  "material  and  personnel" 
of  the  army,  and  to  report  whether  or  not  the  prescribed 
rules,  regulations,  and  orders  for  its  government  are 
properly  carried  into  effect. 

In  the  office  of  the  Judge  Advocate-General,  under 
whose  charge  is  the  Bureau  of  Military  Justice,  the  pro 
ceedings  of  all  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
military  commissions,  are  received,  revised,  recorded,  and 
reported  upon.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Judge  Advocate- 
General  to  report  at  once  for  the  action  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  all  fatal  irregularities  in  proceedings,  and  illegal  01 
unusual  sentences.  When  called  upon  by  the  proper 
authority,  he  gives  an  opinion  on  questions  of  construction 
of  military  law ;  and  through  him  all  communications 
pertaining  to  questions  of  military  justice  should  be 
addressed. 

The  Quartermaster-General's  Department  furnishes  to 
the  army  its  transportation,  of  whatever  nature,  quarters, 
fuel,  stationery,  etc.,  and  pays  for  rent  of  quarters  and  for 
all  materials  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  buildings 
for  its  use.  To  that  office  are  sent  all  reports  and  returns 
of  property  purchased,  issued,  worn  out  in  service,  lost, 
sold,  destroyed,  or  remaining  on  hand,  and  there  are 
approved  all  contracts  for  purchases  connected  with  the 
above. 

The  Subsistence  Department,  as  its  name  implies,  has 
charge  of  the  furnishing  of  subsistence  to  troops  ;  all  reports 
and  returns  necessary  to  the  end  that  stores  may  be  pro 
perly  accounted  for,  are  made  to  this  office,  and  here  all 
contracts  for  their  purchase  are  approved. 


318  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IK   AMERICA. 

The  Medical  Department,  or  Surgeon-General's  Office,  has 
charge  of  the  selection  of  medical  offices  for  detail,  and  to 
it  all  returns  and  reports  in  regard  to  sick  and  wounded  of 
ficers  and  soldiers,  and  medical  stores,  are  made.  With  re 
gard  to  the  other  bureaus  or  offices  which  have  been  men 
tioned,  their  duties  are  described  by  their  titles. 

We  may  further  remark,  in  brief,  that  the  American  army 
is  divided  into  divisions  and  departments  commanded  by 
generals ;  that  in  times  of  peace  it  is  chiefly  employed  in 
occupying  the  various  forts  and  defences  of  the  country,  and 
in  keeping  peace  with  the  Indians  on  the  frontiers ;  that, 
after  forty  years  of  service,  the  officers  of  the  army  may  at 
their  own  request  be  retired,  receiving  seventy-five  per  cent, 
of  their  pay ;  that  members  of  Congress  designate  the  larg 
est  proportion  of  those  who  are  admitted  to  the  West  Point 
Academy,  which  is  the  regular  school  for  the  education  of 
officers  for  the  army.  When,  in  time  of  war,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  volunteers,  they  are  called  for  by  proclamation  of 
the  President,  and  the  State  governors  immediately  answer 
the  call,  and  send  the  proportion  assigned  to  them,  which 
are  chiefly  composed  of  the  militia  or  State  troops ;  and 
after  the  war,  these  volunteer  troops  are  disbanded  and  re 
turn  to  the  ordinary  avocations  of  life,  which  fact  has  been 
considered  by  foreigners  as  one  of  the  marvels  of  the 
American  Government.  The  regular  army  is  supplied  with 
soldiers  by  enlistment,  and  after  entering  the  service,  no 
man  can  leave  it  without  the  consent  of  Government,  nor 
without  sufficient  cause.  With  regard  to  the  pay  of  the 
army,  which  is  always  enhanced  by  long  service,  we  submit 
the  following:  general,  $13,500;  lieutenant-general,  $11,- 
000 ;  major-general,  $7,500 ;  brigadier-general,  $5,500 ; 


LIFE    IN   THE    ARMY    AXD    NAVY.  319 

colonel,  $3,500 ;  lieutenant-colonel,  $3,000 ;  major,  $2,- 
500;  captains,  $1,800  and  $2,000;  regimental  adjutant 
and  quartermaster,  each  $1,800;  first  lieutenants,  $1,500 
and  $1,600;  second  lieutenants,  $1,400  and  $1,500;  and 
chaplains,  $1,500.  The  pay  of  the  common  soldier  is 
$13  per  month,  with  rations.  There  are  25  armories  and 
arsenals  in  the  country,  all  in  command  of  competent 
officers,  and  the  Military  Departments  of  the  Government 
number  15,  and  embrace  the  whole  Union.  The  amount 
required  for  supporting  the  military  establishments  during 
1872  is  about  $29,000,000. 

As  the  War  Department  is  the  centre  of  the  army,  so  is 
the  Navy  Department  the  fountain-head  of  the  navy.  The 
duties  of  this  department  are  distributed  through  the  Sec 
retary's  office  and  eight  bureaus,  namely  :  Bureau  of  Yards 
and  Docks,  which  has  charge  of  the  navy-yards,  including 
the  docks,  wharves,  buildings,  and  machinery,  and  also  of  a 
Naval  Asylum ;  Office  of  Navigation,  which  has  charge  of 
the  maps,  charts,  flags,  signals,  etc.,  and  also  of  the  Naval 
Academy,  Naval  Observatory,  and  Nautical  Almanac  ;  Office 
of  Ordnance,  wrhich  has  charge  of  ordnance  and  ordnance 
stores,  the  manufacture  and  purchase  of  cannon,  guns,  pow 
der,  shot,  shell,  etc. ;  Office  of  Construction  and  Repair, 
having  charge  of  the  construction  of  vessels  of  war ;  Office 
of  Equipment  and  Recruiting,  which  has  charge  of  the  en 
listment  of  men  for  the  navy,  the  equipment  of  vessels,  an 
chors,  cables,  rigging,  sails,  coal,  etc.  ;  Office  of  Provis 
ions  and  Clothing;  and  Office  of  Steam  Engineering  ;  Office 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  the  duties  of  which  last  two  are 
described  by  their  titles.  There  is  attached  to  the  Navy 
Department  what  is  called  the  Marine  Corps,  whose  duties 


320  LIFE   AXD    RESOURCES    IN   AMERICA. 

are  allied  to  those  of  the  army,  only  that  they  are  per 
formed  on  board  ship  or  at  the  navy-yards ;  also  a  National 
Observatory,  which  has  earned  a  world-wide  reputation  ;  and 
also  an  Ilydrographic  Office,  which,  with  the  Observatory, 
annually  publishes  volumes  of  scientific  information  of 
great  value. 

The  largest  vessel  in  the  United  States  navy  has  a  dis 
placement  of  5,440  feet,  carries  12  guns,  and,  like  the 
majority  in  the  service,  is  a  screw  steamer.  Some  other 
ships,  howrever,  carry  45  guns.  Of  those  ranking  as  first- 
rates  there  are  5  ;  second-rates,  40  ;  third-rates,  43  ;  fourth- 
rates,  10  ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  iron-clads,  receiving 
and  practice  ships,  supply  vessels  and  tugs,  making  in  all 
179,  and  carrying  in  the  aggregate  1,390  guns.  The  offi 
cers  of  the  navy,  to  which  we  affix  their  "at  sea"  sala 
ries,  are  as  follows:  1  admiral,  813,000;  1  vice-admiral, 
$9,000;  12  rear-admirals,  $6,000 ;  24  commodores,  $5,000; 
50  captains,  $4,500;  89  commanders,  $3,500;  164  lieu 
tenant-commanders,  $2,800;  201  lieutenants,  $2,400;  75 
masters,  $1,800;  68  ensigns,  $1,200;  113  midshipmen, 
$1,000;  150  in  Medical  Corps,  whose  salaries  are  widely 
various;  134  in  the  Pay  Corps,  with  various  salaries;  and 
241  in  the  Engineer  Corps,  together  with  an  ample  sup 
ply  of  naval  constructors,  chaplains,  professors  of  mathe 
matics,  and  civil  engineers,  whose  salaries  range  from 
$1,700  to  $4,400,  and  are  increased  with  length  of  ser 
vice.  The  pay  of  common  seamen  is  $21.50  per  month, 
and  while  the  subordinate  grades  in  the  service  num 
ber  57,  their  pay  ranges  from  $8  to  $56  per  month. 
The  academy  where  young  men  are  fitted  for  ser 
vice  in  the  navy  is  located  at  Annapolis,  and  is  under 


LIFE    IN    THE    ARMY    AND    NAVY.  '321 

rules,  in  regard  to  admission,  allied  to  those  of  the  Mili 
tary  Academy  at  West  Point.  Of  complete  Navy  Yards 
there,  are  eight  in  the  United  States  ;  five  fleets  are  now 
doing  duty  in  various  quarters  of  the  globe  ;  and  within 
the  last  year  several  scientific  expeditions  have  been  fitted 
out,  as  follows,  viz.:  one  to  survey  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec  and  another  to  survey  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  both  of 
which  have  in  view  the  making  of  a  canal  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans ;  and  an  expedition  has  also 
been  fitted  out  for  explorations  towards  the  North  Pole. 
Indirectly  connected  with  the  navy  is  a  bureau  called  the 
Light-House  Board,  with  which,  as  an  active  member,  has 
hitherto  been  connected  Admiral  Thornton  A.  Jenkins, 
but  who  has  recently  been  assigned  to  the  fleet  in  the 
waters  of  China  and  .Japan.  Without  going  more  fully 
into  the  subject,  for.  want  of  space,  it  only  remains  for  us 
to  add,  in  conclusion,  that  the  sum  of  money  which  will 
be  required  to  support  the  American  naval  establishment 
during  the  year  1872  will  be  about  $20,000,000. 


14* 


LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING   CITIES. 


THE  total  number  of  incorporated  cities  in  the  United 
States  is  409,  but  many  of  them  do  not  contain  more 
than  2,000  inhabitants.  By  far  the  largest  proportion 
of  foreigners  who  come  to  this  country  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  enter  the  country  at  the  port  of  New  York, 
which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
It  was  founded  by  the  Dutch,  and  called  by  them  New 
Amsterdam.  It  occupies  the  greater  part  of  an  island 
called  Manhattan,  which  is  13  J  miles^long,  and  contains 
an  area  of  22  miles.  The  cities  of  Brooklyn  and  Jersey 
City,  and  several  other  towns,  although  having  each 
a  government  of  its  own,  are  in  reality  portions  of  New 
York,  and  their  combined  population  is  not  far  from 
1,500,000.  According  to  the  last  census,  the  population 
of  New  York  by  itself  was  942,292;  of  whom  523,198 
were  born  in  the  United  States,  and  484,109  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  Within  eight  miles  of  the  com 
mercial  metropolis,  in  New  Jersey,  is  a  city  called 
Newark,  of  100,000  people,  but  it  is  so  closely  identified 
with  the  former  in  its  business  and  social  interests  as 
almost  to  be  considered  a  suburb  of  New  York.  Dur 
ing  the  last  fifteen  years  the  number  of  immigrants 
arriving  there,  from  various  parts  of  the  world,  was 
about  2,341,000,  the  arrivals  for  1870  alone  having  been 


LIFE    IN   THE    LEADING    CITIES.  323 

211,190,  and  it  is  estimated  that  about  four-fifths  of 
these  foreigners  found  permanent  homes  in  the  various 
States  of  the  interior.  The  principal  street  of  New  York, 
which  runs  through  its  entire  length  like  a  backbone,  is 
called  Broadway,  and  for  several  miles  is  completely  lined 
with  iron  and  marble  buildings,  devoted  chiefly  to  business 
pursuits,  and  winning  for  it  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  handsomest  and  wealthiest  streets  in  the  world.  But 
much  of  this  splendor  is  also  found  in  all  its  subordinate 
streets  and  avenues,  where  the  houses  are  generally  built 
of  brick;  and,  as  a  street  for  private  residences,  its  Fifth 
Avenue  is  claimed  to  be  unsurpassed.  Projecting,  as  this 
city  does,  into  a  splendid  harbor,  where  the  fortifications 
are  strong  and  imposing,  it  is  perpetually  surrounded  with  a 
forest  of  shipping,  which  gives  the  stranger  an  adequate 
idea  of  its  very  extensive  commerce.  The  value  of 
its  real  and  personal  estate  has  not  been  definitely  set 
tled,  but  has  been  estimated  at  nearly  $800.000,000, 
and  the  rate  of  taxation  is  2  per  cent,  per  annum. 
It  is  supplied  with  pure  water  by  an  aqueduct  which 
cost  more  than  $1 5. 000, 000,  the  water-pipes  of  which 
measure  some  2VO  miles.  It  has  100  miles  of  sewers, 
and  more  than  200  miles  of  paved  streets.  Its  temples 
for  religious  worship  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
very  beautiful,  the  church  property  of  the  city  reach 
ing  in  value  nearly  $15,000,000.  Its  principal  park, 
known  as  Central  Park,  is  said  to  be  equal  to  the 
best  in  Europe,  and  its  principal  financial  street,  known 
as  Wall-street,  although  not  more  than  half  a  mile 
in  length,  has  a  power  which  is  felt  in  the  remotest 
corners  of  the  earth.  Its  hospitals  and  other  bene- 


324  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

volent  institutions  are  numerous  and  liberally  con 
ducted  in  every  particular,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  its  institutions  of  learning,  ranging  from  first-class 
colleges  to  the  best  of  district  or  common  schools.  It  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  libraries,  many  of  which  are 
very  large,  and  all  of  them  are  conducted  on  the  most 
liberal  principles.  Its  manufacturing  establishments  are 
numberless.  Its  fire  department  is  noted  for  its  efficiency, 
and  is  founded  on  the  voluntary  system;  and  there  is  a 
lively  military  spirit  among  its  young  men,  and  its  militia 
regiments  rival  veteran  regulars  in  their  drill.  Its  police 
force  is  of  the  first  order,  and  is  managed  by  commissioners. 
Policemen  are  appointed  during  good  behavior,  and 
officers  rise  from  the  ranks.  Patrolmen  are  paid  $800 
per  annum,  sergeants  $900,  captains  $1,200,  inspectors 
$2,000,  and  a  general  superintendent  $5,000  a  year. 
There  are  about  700  police  stations,  412  miles  of  streets, 
and  11  miles  of  piers  in  the  city.  Its  newspapers 
are  abundant,  and,  taken  in  the  aggregate,  are  pro 
bably  more  influential  for  good  or  evil  than  any  similar 
number  on  the  globe.  Its  markets  for  the  necessaries 
of  life  are  fully  supplied  with  everything  that  can  be 
desired,  in  the  way  of  meats,  flour,  fruit,  and  fish. 
Its  government,  although  resting  upon  the  most  liberal 
provisions,  has  for  many  years  been  a  kind  of  political 
arena,  in  which  unworthy  men  have  obtained  and  exercised 
the  most  dangerous  powers,  and,  at  the  moment  of  writing 
these  lines,  a  number  of  men  who  were  lately  at  the  head 
of  the  city  government  are  confined  in  a  common  prison 
for  robbing  their  fellow-citizens  to  an  enormous  extent. 
While  it  is  true  that  New  York  is  very  much  of  a  cosnio- 


LIFE    IN   THE    LEADING    CITIES.  325 

politan  city,  it  has  been  estimated  that  two-thirds  of  its 
inhabitants  are  natives  of  the  United  States.  It  is,  how 
ever,  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city,  and  in  several 
respects  is  equal  to  London.  The  post-office  of  New  York 
is  the  most  important  in  the  country;  and  its  customs 
receipts  amount  to  about  three-fifths  of  the  total  in  the 
United  States.  The  manufactures  of  the  city  constitute  a 
leading  element  of  its  prosperity  and  wealth.  The  most 
numerous  class  of  workmen  are  those  engaged  in  making 
wearing  apparel;  next  to  whom  come  the  workmen  in  iron 
and  metals ;  then  the  chemists  ;  workmen  in  leather,  steam 
machinery,  and  lumber;  navigators;  workmen  in  fibrous  sub 
stances,  glass,  and  pottery,  and  the  manufacturers  of  cars  and 
wagons  ;  so  on, — to  an  almost  unlimited  extent.  Nowhere 
is  the  habit  of  eating  away  from  home  so  general  as  in 
New  York,  owing  to  the  great  distance  between  the  dwell 
ing-houses  and  the  places  of  business  ;  and  this  habit  lias 
made  eating-houses,  lunch-rooms,  refectories,  oyster-cellars, 
and  bar-rooms,  a  prominent  feature  of  the  place.  Its  hotels 
are  quite  magnificent,  and  its  boarding-houses  as  comforta 
ble  as  any  in  the  world.  The  eating-houses  are  found 
everywhere,  and  are  frequented  by  the  millionaire  as  well 
as  the  vagabond.  The  city  government  is  vested  in  a 
Mayor  and  Boards  of  Aldermen  and  Councilmen,  who  are 
annually  elected  by  the  people.  While  it  is  true  that  in 
times  of  high  political  excitement  it  is  sometimes  afflicted 
with  mobs  and  riots,  the  din  of  business  always  ceases  on 
the  approach  of  the  Sabbath,  and  that  day  is  observed  as  a 
day  of  rest,  of  church-going,  and  of  recreation,  by  its  teem 
ing  thousands.  The  spring  and  autumn  are  the  two  great 
seasons  for  business  ;  winter,  the  special  season  for  amuse- 


S26  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

ments  and  all  sorts  of  gayety ;  while  the  summer  is  com 
paratively  sluggish,  although,  even  then,  the  turmoil  of 
business  is  far  from  being  dead. 

The  second  largest  city  in  the  United  States  is  Phila 
delphia,  which  was  founded  by  William  Penn  in  1682,  and 
contains  674,022  inhabitants,  of  whom  490,398  were  born 
in  the  United  States,  and  428,250  in  Pennsylvania.  It 
stands  on  a  plain  between  the  rivers  Delaware  and  Schuyl- 
kill,  and  has  several  suburban  cities,  the  whole  of  which 
form  one  municipality,  containing  120  square  miles.  The 
streets  of  the  city  proper  are  laid  out  in  regular  order,  and 
the  houses  are  more  distinguished  for  their  neatness  and 
comfort  than  for  their  richness  or  extravagance,  and  in  this 
particular  are  in  keeping  with  the  character  of  the  popula 
tion.  The  city  is  well  supplied  with  parks,  one  of  which, 
for  its  collection  of  trees  and  scenes  of  beauty,  is  considered 
a  successful  rival  of  the  great  Central  Park  of  New  York. 
Its  public  buildings  are  numerous  and  beautiful ;  one  of 
them,  called  Girard  College,  was  built  and  the  institution 
endowed  by  one  of  its  citizens  alone;  but  the  chief  boast 
of  the  inhabitants  is  Independence  Hall,  which  was  the 
meeting-place  of  Congress  during  the  earlier  history  of  the 
American  Republic.  The  churches  are  also  numerous,  all 
the  religious  denominations  being  well  supplied,  but  this  is 
especially  the  case  in  regard  to  the  Quakers,  who  have 
hitherto  been  so  numerous  and  influential  as  to  have  given 
to  their  city  the  name  of  Quaker  City.  The  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  of  Philadelphia  have  always  occupied 
a  high  position,  and  the  cultured  character  of  its  inhabi 
tants  has  always  been  manifested  by  its  rich  libraries  and 
galleries  of  art,  and  by  the  upright  character  of  its  press. 


LIFE   IN  THE   LEADING   CITIES.  327 

It  was  here  that  Benjamin  Franklin  lived,  and  worked  as 
a  printer,  and  won  his  great  fame  as  a  philosopher.  From 
the  earliest  times  the  central  mint  of  the  United  States  has 
been  established  here,  and  the  city  has  borne  an  important 
part  in  the  financial  history  of  the  country.  Because  of  its 
remoteness  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  it  may  not  compete 
with  New  York  in  its  foreign  commerce,  but  it  carries  on 
an  immense  trade  with  the  interior  country,  and  is  a  noted 
terminus  for  unnumbered  railroads  and  canals.  As  a  depot 
for  the  exportation  of  coal  it  is  without  a  rival;  and  it  has 
always  been  famous  for  the  extent  of  its  book-publishing 
business.  Within  the  last  few  years  Philadelphia  has 
greatly  increased  its  manufacturing  establishments,  until 
its  inhabitants  now  claim  that  they  can  produce  every 
thing  that  may  be  required  for  the  comfort  or  convenience 
of  man  ;  indeed,  in  the  variety  and  extent  of  its  manufac 
tures  it  is  said  to  be  unequalled  by  any  other  city  in  the 
Union.  On  this  point,  we  submit  one  illustration,  which 
is,  that  it  contains  the  two  largest  establishments  in  the 
world  for  the  manufacture  of  locomotives,  which  give 
employment  to  about  4,000  hands,  and  can  build  one 
of  those  wonderful  engines  in  a  single  day.  The  capital 
invested  in  its  manufacturing  establishments  is  estimated 
at  8300,000,000.  While  the  inhabitants  of  this  city  are 
noted  for  their  peaceful  disposition  and  for  their  love  of 
order,  it  is  also  true  that  it  has  been  the  scene  of  many 
political  or  religious  disturbances,  but  which,  in  these  latter 
days,  have  been  quite  unknown.  Another  of  the  character 
istics  of  this  city  is  the  total  absence  of  tenement  houses, 
and  the  existence  of  comfortable  homes  for  the  laboring 
population.  As  one  of  her  public  men  informs  us,  every 


328  LIFE    AKD    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

laborer,  who  has  a  family,  dwells  under  a  separate  roof, 
which  is  most  frequently  his  own — in  a  house  lighted  by 
gas,  and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  pure  water.  As 
this  city  is  pre-eminently  a  producing  city,  so  are  its  native 
and  foreign  inhabitants  distinguished  for  their  industry, 
and  there  is  not  in  the  whole  land,  probably,  any  other 
crowded  city  where  among  the  working  classes  more  gen 
uine  comfort  and  contentment  can  be  found. 

The  next  city  on  our  list  is  Boston,  which  contains  250,- 
526  inhabitants,  of  whom  172,450  were  born  in  the  United 
States,  and  127,620  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  If,  how 
ever,  we  should  add  to  it  the  various  towns  which  adjoin 
it,  the  population  would  be  nearly  double.  It  wras  first 
settled  in  1630  by  the  Puritans,  and  is  the  leading  city  of 
New  England,  upon  which  it  has  always  exerted  a  para 
mount  influence.  It  bore  a  very  important  part  in  the  his 
tory  of  the  American  Revolution,  and  events  of  great 
importance  have  transpired  within  its  limits  and  in  its 
vicinity.  Formerly  it  was  more  closely  identified  with  the 
commerce  of  the  East  than  any  other  American  city,  and 
at  the  present  time  ranks  next  to  New  York  in  the  extent 
of  its  foreign  commerce.  The  city  is  chiefly  situated  on  a 
peninsula,  and  some  of  the  adjacent  parts,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  numerous  bridges,  rise  to  the  height  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  harbor, 
which  is  deep,  convenient,  and  secure.  The  streets  were 
originally  laid  out  upon  no  systematic  plan,  and  being  ac 
commodated  to  the  unevenness  of  the  surface,  many  of 
them  are  crooked  and  narrow,  but  these  defects  are  being 
annually  remedied.  Many  of  the  public  buildings  are 
handsome,  but  some  of  them  are  more  famous  for  their 


LIFE   IX   THE   LEADING    CITIES.  329 

associations  than  their  imposing  appearance.  The  State 
House  occupies  the  apex  of  the  city,  and  presents  a  com 
manding  view  of  the  sea  and  surrounding  country ;  and 
its  Funeuil  Hall  is  universally  known  as  the  "  Cradle  of 
Liberty,"  because  it  was  here  that  the  orators  of  the  Revo 
lution  fired  the  hearts  of  the  people  against  England.  One 
of  its  leading  land-marks  is  the  monument  of  Bunker  Hill, 
where  was  fought  a  famous  battle.  Its  wharves  and  ware 
houses  are  on  a  scale  of  magnitude  surpassed  by  no  other 
city  of  the  same  size.  Its  churches  are  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  beautiful,  the  largest  number  of  them  be 
longing  to  the  Unitarian  denomination.  It  has  an  exten 
sive  park  called  "Boston  Common,"  which  is  a  delightful 
resort  for  the  inhabitants  during  the  vernal  months.  With 
regard  to  literary,  scientific,  arid  educational  institutions, 
the  city  is  most  abundantly  supplied.  Its  schools  have  a 
high  reputation,  and  it  publishes  more  than  one  hundred 
periodicals.  Among  its  many  libraries  is  one,  the  largest, 
which  is  entirely  free  to  all  who  may  desire  to  enjoy  its 
advantages  ;  and  the  fact  that  the  famous  Harvard  Univer 
sity  is  located  in  one  of  its  suburbs,  called  Cambridge,  has 
greatly  tended  to  give  to  it  its  high  reputation  as  a  seat  of 
learning.  Its  benevolent  institutions  are  also  numerous 
and  richly  endowed,  and  it  has  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
providing  for  the  wants  and  intellectual  elevation  of  the 
blind  and  the  comforts  of  the  insane.  Its  infirmaries  have 
always  borne  a  high  reputation.  The  ice-trade  is  a  Bos 
ton  invention,  and  is  said  to  have  secured  for  it  the  im 
portant  trade  which  it  enjoys  with  Calcutta,  and  other 
portions  of  the  East.  On  the  score  of  enterprise  and  cul 
ture,  the  inhabitants  of  Boston  have  no  superiors,  and  that 


330  LIFE   AKD   RESOURCES   1^   AMERICA. 

circumstance  has  tended  to  make  them  somewhat  clannish 
or  exclusive  in  their  manners  and  conversation,  and  their 
modes  of  doing  business;  and  hence  it  is  that  the  outside 
world,  especially  the  cosmopolitan  citizens  of  New  York, 
occasionally  indulge  in  a  little  ridicule  at  the  expense  of 
the  Bostonians.  It  is  a  thriving  city,  and,  by  means  of 
seven  or  eight  great  lines  of  railway,  carries  on  an  import 
ant  trade  in  manufactures  with  the  interior  country.  It  is 
a  poor  place  for  idlers  and  beggars,  and  yet  the  most  liberal 
provision  is  made  for  the  deserving  poor.  While  this  city 
does  much  to  promote  the  fine  arts,  it  claims  a  reputation 
of  its  own  for  what  it  has  done  in  developing  the  art  of 
music,  and  it  boasts  of  a  church  organ  which  is  the  largest 
in  the  world. 

Another  of  the  leading  cities  of  America  is  Baltimore, 
which  has  a  population  of  267,354,  of  whom  210,870  were 
born  in  the  United  States,  and  187,650  in  the  State  of 
Maryland.  It  was  founded  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
1729:  is  admirably  situated  both  for  foreign  and  internal 
trade,  having  a  spacious  and  secure  harbor,  and  occupying 
a  central  position  as  regards  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States.  The  site  of  the  city  is  picturesque,  cover 
ing  a  number  of  eminences  ;  and,  although  connected  with 
the  Northern  and  Western  States  by  its  business  ramifica 
tions,  it  has  hitherto  been  considered  a  representative  of 
the  Southern  States.  It  was  here  that  the  first  gun  was 
fired,  by  a  mob,  at  the  commencement  of  the  late  civil 
war,  when  a  regiment  of  troops  from  Massachusetts  was 
assaulted,  on  their  way  to  Washington.  Its  proximity  to 
the  seat  of  government,  from  which  it  is  only  38  miles 
distant,  has  added  to  its  importance,  and  made  it  pop- 


LIFE   IN"  THE   LEADING    CITIES.  331 

ular  with  the  officials  of  the  nation.  From  the  number  and 
prominence  of  its  monuments,  it  has  been  called  the  "  Monu 
mental  City."  The  most  imposing  of  these  is  surmounted 
by  a  statue  of  George  Washington,  which  stands  312 
feet  above  the  adjacent  harbor;  and  the  city  contains 
a  shot-tower  which  is  250  feet  high — the  highest  in  the 
world.  The  churches  of  this  city  are  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  beautiful  and  imposing;  and  it  boasts  of  one  large 
park,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery, 
and  is  a  successful  rival  of  those  in  New  York  and  Bos 
ton.  The  manufacturing  facilities  of  Baltimore  are  un 
common,  and  quite  equal  to  its  commercial  advantages. 
In  its  benevolent  and  educational  institutions  it  is  behind 
none  of  its  sister  cities,  and  its  name  is  associated  with 
many  men  of  culture,  connected  with  literature,  science, 
and  the  fine  arts.  It  was  here  that  the  famous  George 
Peabody  first  established  himself  in  business,  and  where  he 
founded  one  of  the  largest  educational  institutions  asso 
ciated  with  his  name. 

Among  the  representative  cities  of  America  is  New 
Orleans.  It  was  founded  by  the  French  in  1717,  and  has 
a  population  of  191,418.  Its  site  is  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  great  Mississippi  River,  about  100  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  that  stream,  and  as  it  forms  a  half 
circle,  has  been  called  the  Crescent  City.  Many  parts  of 
it  are  so  low  and  flat  that  the  waters  are  kept  from  over 
flowing  it  only  by  artificial  embankments.  It  possesses 
unrivalled  natural  advantages  for  internal  trade,  and  it  is 
visited  by  vessels  from  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Every 
description  of  craft  is  employed  in  transporting  to  it  the 
rich  products  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  many  tributaries, 


332  LIFE   AND    RESOURCES    IN    AMERICA. 

whose  navigable  waters  are  not  less  than  15,000 
miles  in  extent,  and  embrace  every  variety  of  climate. 
ISTot  only  is  it  the  receptacle  of  countless  varieties  of 
produce  from  the  interior,  but  is  considered  the  largest 
cotton  market  in  the  world.  The  particular  spot  where  all 
this  merchandise  is  received,  and  from  which  it  is  shipped  to 
foreign  ports,  is  called  the  levee  ;  it  extends  along  the  river 
for  miles,  and  because  of  the  strange  commingling  of  ships 
and  steamboats  and  other  kinds  of  vessels,  and  also  on 
account  of  its  vast  proportions  and  never-ceasing  bustle, 
has  been  pronounced  by  travellers  one  of  the  wonders  of 
America.  It  abounds  in  handsome  buildings,  and  its 
various  public  institutions  rest  on  liberal  foundations.  On 
account  of  its  low  situation  and  warm  climate  it  is  subject 
to  annual  visitations  from  the  yellow  fever,  which  is  fre 
quently  fatal  to  strangers.  Any  description  of  this  city 
would  be  incomplete  without  a  notice  of  its  cemeteries. 
Each  one  is  inclosed  with  a  thick  brick  wall  of  arched  cav 
ities,  made  just  large  enough  to  admit  a  single  coffin,  and 
rising  to  the  height  of  twelve  feet.  Within  the  inclosure 
are  crowded  the  tombs,  which  are  built  wholly  above  the 
ground,  and  are  from  one  to  three  stories  high.  This 
method  of  sepulture  is  a  necessity,  for  the  earth  is  so  uni 
versally  saturated  with  water,  that  none  but  paupers  are 
consigned  to  the  earth.  The  population  of  the  city  is 
exceedingly  varied ;  its  chief  resident  inhabitants  are 
known  as  Creoles,  or  the  native  population ;  and  those  who 
are  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits,  and  are  successful,  usu 
ally  remain  there  during  the  winter  or  business  months, 
spending  their  summers  among  the  highlands  of  the  interior 
country.  It  is  also  thickly  inhabited  by  colored  people, 


LIFE    IN   THE    LEADING    CITIES.  333 

who  were  once  in  slavery.  It  was  the  scene  of  quite  a 
famous  battle  in  1815,  between  the  English  and  the  Amer 
icans  under  Andrew  Jackson,  who  was  victorious,  and  sub 
sequently  became  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
prevailing  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  and  many  churches 
are  modelled  upon  those  of  European  countries ;  and  not 
withstanding  the  fact  that  this  city  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Wet  Grave,"  and  the  "City  of  the  Dead,"  it  is  celebra 
ted  for  its  continuous  round  of  gayeties,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  year  to  its  close. 

On  leaving  New  Orleans,  if  we  pass  up  the  Missis 
sippi  River  about  1,200  miles,  we  come  to  the  city  of 
St.  Louis,  which  contains  310,864  inhabitants.  It  was 
founded  by  the  French  fur-traders,  and  possesses  the  pecu 
liarity  of  being  located  at  the  geographical  centre  of  the 
North  American  Continent ;  and  its  advantages  as  a  com 
mercial  emporium  are  probably  not  surpassed  by  those 
of  any  inland  port  in  the  world.  The  business  transacted 
here  by  means  of  steamboats  and  railroads  is  enormous ; 
the  people  are  cosmopolitan  in  their  character,  and  not 
behind  the  cities  of  the  eastern  States  in  their  industry, 
liberality,  and  intellectual  culture.  And  what  we  say  of 
St.  Louis  is  also  true  of  Cincinnati,  on  the  Ohio,  with  its 
216,230  inhabitants;  of  Louisville,  on  the  same  river,  with 
its  100,753  inhabitants;  and  of  Chicago,  on  Lake  Michi 
gan.  With  regard  to  the  last  named  place,  we  may 
remark  that  its  rapid  growth,  in  25  years,  from  a 
village  to  a  city  of  nearly  300,000,  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  the  age.  But,  since  the  first  pages  of  this 
volume  were  sent  to  press,  Chicago  has  met  with  a 
calamity  by  fire,  which  has  been  pronounced  quite  unpre- 


334  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IX   AMERICA. 

cedentecl.  It  occurred  in  October,  1871,  and  resulted  in 
the  total  destruction  of  all  the  business  portions  of  the 
city.  More  than  100  lives  were  also  lost,  80,000 
persons,  including  merchants  and  mechanics,  were 
thrown  out  of  employment  or  reduced  to  beggary 
in  a  single  night,  and  the  total  loss  of  property  was 
estimated  at  $200,000,000.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
the  most  extensive  fire  that  ever  occurred  in  any 
country,  and  the  sympathy  felt  for  the  sufferers  called 
forth  subscriptions  of  money  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  many  millions  of  dol 
lars  ;  and  what  was  still  more  wonderful  was  the  fact  that 
the  regular  business  of  the  city  was  again  in  successful 
operation  in  a  very  few  weeks,  although  it  had  to  be  trans 
acted  under  many  and  great  disadvantages. 

Having  elsewhere  touched  upon  the  characteristics  of 
Washington,  the  metropolis  of  the  United  States,  with  its 
120,000  inhabitants,  we  conclude  our  list  of  the  larger 
cities  with  an  allusion  to  San  Francisco,  which  contains 
about  150,000  inhabitants.  The  rapidity  of  its  growth  can 
only  be  compared  with  that  of  Chicago;  and  while  the 
former  was  chiefly  built  up  by  the  gold  mines  of  California, 
the  latter  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  agricultural  develop 
ment  of  the  wide  and  fertile  region  of  which  it  is  the  cen 
tre.  The  fact  that  San  Francisco  is  the  largest  American 
seaport  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  that  it  is  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  gives  it  command  of  the  com 
merce  of  all  the  Eastern  nations,  by  which  advantages  it  will 
probably  become  a  city  of  vast  importance  and  influence. 
From  the  nature  of  its  position,  its  social  characteristics  are 
quite  different  from  those  of  the  Atlantic  cities,  and  it  is  not 


LIFE    IN"    THE    LEADING    CITIES,  335 

behind  them  in  any  of  those  qualities  which  give  power  and 
dignity  to  a  city  ;  yet  it  stands  quite  alone  in  regard  to  its 
Chinese  population.  The  high  rates  of  labor  in  this  city 
generally,  and  its  dependence  on  importation  for  all  its 
iron,  brass,  cotton,  hardware,  and  most  of  its  wool,  leather, 
and  hard-wood  lumber,  prevent  the  establishment  of  fac 
tories,  and  all  the  cutlery,  fine  tools,  and  machinery,  glass, 
porcelain, 'clothing,  and  shoes  are  necessarily  obtained  from 
abroad  at  a  great  expense,  thus  giving  employment  to  a 
large  amount  of  shipping. 

In  our  remarks  thus  far,  we  have  only  spoken  of  those 
American  cities  which  contain  more  than  100,000  inhab 
itants.  But  there  are  many  smaller  cities,  which  have  a 
world-wide  fame  on  account  of  their  beauty,  business  char 
acteristics,  or  historical  associations.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  Charleston,  which  has  about  50,000  inhabit 
ants,  is  the  centre  of  the  rice-producing  country  of  South 
Carolina,  and  in  whose  harbor,  at  Fort  Sumter,  was  made 
the  first  regular  assault  upon  the  national  forces  at  the  com 
mencement  of  the  late  civil  war,  when  the  city  was  a  great 
sufferer ;  Savannah,  the  chief  seaport  of  Georgia  and  the 
rival  of  Charleston,  having  a  population  of  nearly  30,000  ; 
Richmond,  in  Virginia,  with  more  than  50,000  inhabit 
ants,  and  famous  for  its  beautiful  location,  its  flour  and 
tobacco  trade,  and  for  having  been  the  headquarters  of 
the  late  rebellion ;  Mobile,  in  Alabama,  with  32,000  in 
habitants,  possessing  characteristics  similar  to  those  of 
New  Orleans ;  Detroit,  in  Michigan,  with  nearly  80,000  in 
habitants,  beautiful  for  situation,  and  the  commercial  gate 
way  to  the  great  lakes  of  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior; 
Mihvaukie,  in  Wisconsin,  with  71,000  inhabitants,  the 


336  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN  AMERICA. 

counterpart  of  Chicago,  and  its  unsuccessful  rival ;  Cleve 
land,  in  Ohio,  with  93,000  energetic  inhabitants ;  Buffalo, 
at  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie,  with  a  population  of 
115,000  souls — near  which  are  the  Falls  of  Niagara;  Pitts- 
burg,  in  Pennsylvania,  with  a  population  of  86,000, 
almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  coal  and  iron  interests ; 
Albany,  in  New  York,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Hudson,  and  famous  for  its  Dutch  history,  and  as  being 
the  Capital  of  the  Empire  State,  with  70,000  people ; 
Rochester  and  Troy,  in  the  same  State,  with  63,000  souls ; 
Indianapolis,  in  Indiana,  with  48,000  people,  and  famous 
for  its  surrounding  agricultural  country;  Portland,  in 
Maine,  which  has  32,000  souls,  and  one  of  the  best  harbors 
in  America;  and  the  cities  of  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts, 
and  New  Haven,  in  Connecticut,  where  are  located  two 
of  the  leading  colleges  of  the  United  States. 


FEOKTIEE     LIFE     AND     DEVELOP 
MENTS. 


THE  frontiers  of  America  are  so  extensive,  and  the  pur 
suits  of  their  inhabitants  so  various,  that  an  entire  volume 
would  not  suffice  to  describe  them  with  minuteness.  In 
taking  a  bird's-eye  vie\v  of  the  domain  in  question  (and  a 
similar  view  of  other  subjects  is  all  that  has  been  attempted 
in  the  foregoing  chapters),  we  propose  to  speak  of  the  four 
following  characteristics,  viz.  :  the  Indians,  the  Pioneer  Far 
mers,  the  Fur-Traders  and  Trappers,  and  the  Lumbermen. 

It  is  now  a  settled  fact  that  the  Red  race,  or  native  In 
dians  of  America,  are  gradually  passing  away  tinder  the 
march  of  civilization.  According  to  the  most  authentic 
data,  the  number  of  Indians  who  recognize  the  President  as 
their  Great  Father  is  about  300,000.  Of  these,  the  Creeks, 
Cherokees,  Choctaws,  and  Chickasaws,  who  live  on  the 
head-waters  of  the  Arkansas,  number  some  54,000 ;  and,  ex 
cepting  4,000  of  the  Six  Nations  in  New  York,  1,000  Chero 
kees  in  North  Carolina,  600  Penobscots  in  Maine,  and  41,- 
000  of  various  tribes  still  holding  reservations  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  Rivers,  they  are  the 
only  tribes  that  have  made  any  satisfactory  advances 
in  acquiring  the  arts  and  comforts  of  civilization.  It  would 
thus  appear  that  the  number  of  wild  Indians  who  live  en- 

15 


338  LIFE   AXD   RESOURCES   Itf  AMERICA. 

tirely  by  the  chase,  and  inhabit  the  American  territories, 
excluding  Alaska,  number  200,000  souls.  Although  nomi 
nally  obedient  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  these  hunting 
tribes  are,  in  reality,  as  free  to  roam  as  if  there  were  no 
central  government.  But  with  those  who  are  partially 
civilized  the  case  is  quite  different.  Their  wealth  has  been 
estimated  at  $3,300,000,  while  they  support  about  70  schools, 
nearly  the  same  number  of  teachers  or  missionaries,  and 
cultivate  nearly  1,000  acres  of  land.  The  names  by  which 
they  are  known  number  150,  and  their  geographical  condi 
tion  is  co-extensive  with  the  area  of  the  United  States  and 
Territories ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  of  all  the  races 
or  classes  of  people  who  inhabit  the  United  States,  the 
Indians  are  the  only  people  who  are  not  recognized  as  citi 
zens  by  the  General  Government. 

On  leaving  the  hunting-grounds  of  the  Red  Men  for  the 
haunts  of  opening  civilization,  the  first  thing  which  attracts 
attention  is  the  cabin  of  the  pioneer  or  frontier  farmer. 
Though  born  and  bred  in  a  settled  country,  this  man,  who 
represents  a  large  class,  has  been  -tempted  by  the  spirit  of 
enterprise  to  purchase  a  few  hundred  acres  of  land  at  the 
low  government  price,  which  he  is  clearing  away  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  and  in  the  midst  of  which  he  has  fixed  his  home. 
It  is  built  of  logs,  small,  and  poorly  furnished,  and,  but  for 
the  smoke  issuing  from  its  rustic  chimney,  could  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  stable  or  barn  where  he  shelters  his 
horses  and  oxen  and  cows.  Hard  work  and  rough  fare  are 
the  lot  of  this  poor  yeoman,  but  his  mission,  as  a  man,  com  • 
mands  the  highest  respect.  He  has  a  growing  family  about 
him,  and  in  their  welfare  are  centred  all  his  hopes.  Though 
far  removed  from  schools  and  churches,  and  the  refinements 


FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS.  339 

of  life,  he  plods  on  year  after  year,  giving  his  boys  the  best 
education  he  can,  thankful  that  they  are  approaching  man's 
estate,  and  cheered  with  the  prospect  that,  like  many  of  his 
predecessors  in  a  new  country,  he  will  acquire  a  fortune,  and 
spend  his  old  age  in  a  large  frame  or  brick  house,  and  end 
his  days  in  peace.  Five,  ten,  or  it  may  be  fifteen,  miles  from 
this  man's  cabin  is  another,  built  on  the  same  model,  and 
whose  owner  is  a  counterpart  of  himself.  Farther  on,  still 
another  log-cabin  comes  in  view,  and  so  on  do  they  con 
tinue  to  appear,  encompassing  the  entire  frontiers  of  civili 
zation.  The  ancestors  of  many  of  these  men  were  among 
those  who  originally  fought  on  the  battle-field  for  the  inde 
pendence  of  their  country,  and  they  themselves,  with  their 
brothers  and  sons,  flocked  by  thousands  to  its  rescue,  dur 
ing  the  late  civil  war  in  America.  These  men  embody  the 
true  spirit  of  the  land  in  which  they  dwell,  and  in  history 
they  will  be  long  remembered  with  honor  and  gratitude, 
for  what  they  have  done,  and  are  doing,  to  make  clear  the 
pathway  of  empire. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  that  class  of  people,  living  on 
the  frontiers,  known  as  fur-traders  and  trappers.  The 
business  of  collecting  and  selling  furs  and  peltries  was  com 
menced  immediately  after  the  first  settlement  of  the 
country,  and  for  about  two  hundred  years  was  eminently 
lucrative,  and  gave  emplovment  to  large  numbers  of  enter 
prising  men.  Representatives  from  France  and  England, 
as  well  as  the  United  States,  participated  in  the  trade,  and 
several  companies  of  great  magnitude  and  influence  were 
the  outgrowth  of  this  trade,  viz.  :  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com 
pany,  the  Northwest  Company,  and  the  American  Fur 
Company.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  fur  business  has 


340  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

greatly  declined  on  the  American  Continent,  but  is  not 
yet  extinct.  The  men  called  traders  are  those  who  locate 
themselves  on  the  borders  of  the  wilderness,  and  keep  for 
sale  ample  supplies  of  all  such  articles  as  may  be  needed  by 
the  Indians  or  trappers,  who  pay  for  what  they  purchase 
with  furs  and  peltries.  The  more  common  articles  required 
are  blankets,  guns  and  ammunition,  flour  and  pork,  tobacco, 
knives,  as  well  as  trinkets  and  the  baneful  fire-water,  while 
the  articles  for  which  they  are  exchanged  are  buffalo  robes, 
and  the  skins  of  the  deer,  the  beaver,  and  the  otter,  the 
sable,  the  mink,  the  bear,  and  the  wolf,  for  all  of  which  there 
is  always  a  demand  in  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  States. 
The  men  known  as  trappers  are  either  white  men  or  half- 
breeds  (so  called,  because  they  are  the  offspring  of  French 
fathers  and  Indian  mothers),  and  they  are  the  successful  rivals 
of  the  native  Indians  in  hunting  or  trapping  wild  animals. 
Those  who  reside  in  the  prairie  countries  or  among  the 
Rocky  Mountains  chiefly  employ  the  horse  in  travelling, 
while  those  who  reside  in  the  densely  wooded  regions  where 
rivers  and  lakes  abound,  employ  the  bark-canoe  in  their 
operations.  In  the  earlier  times,  when  America  was  yet  a 
wilderness,  this  latter  class  of  men  rendered  important  ser 
vice  to  the  English  and  French  nations,  by  acting  as  guides 
and  assistants  in  the  exploring  expeditions,  and  they  be 
came  universally  known  as  voyageurs.  While  there  are 
many  American  towns  and  cities  which  owe  their  origin  to 
the  existence  of  the  fur-trade,  the  two  most  noted  of  these 
are  St.  Louis,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and  Montreal,  in 
Canada,  which  lies  on  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  but  both  of 
these  noted  cities  are  rapidly  losing  their  former  reputations, 
and  have  really  become  cosmopolitan  in  their  character,  as 


FROXTIER   LIFE   AKD   DEVELOPMENTS.  341 

well  as  cities  of  great  magnitude  and  importance  in  the 
history  of  commerce. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  phase  of  frontier  life  in 
the  United  States  is  that  connected  with  the  lumbering 
business.  There  is  no  country  on  the  globe  which  equals 
America  in  the  extent  of  its  valuable  forests,  and  there  is  a 
great  and  constantly-increasing  demand  for  every  variety 
of  lumber,  for  the  building  of  houses  and  the  countless  other 
things  which  are  made  of  wood,  and  indispensable  for  the 
comfort  of  mankind.  The  manufacture  of  lumber  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  is  a  prominent  source  of  wealth  in 
America,  the  aggregate  value  of  the  trade  amounting  to 
more  than  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  and  giving  em 
ployment  to  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  persons  in  its 
various  departments.  The  variety  of  forest-trees  which  are 
cut  down  and  transformed  into  lumber  is  very  great,  but 
the  pine  is  most  abundant,  next  to  which  may  be  mentioned 
the  fir,  spruce,  and  hemlock,  all  of  which  are  found  in  the 
eastern,  northern,  and  northwestern  States.  The  various 
marketable  articles  which  are  manufactured  out  of  these 
several  woods  are  known  as  timber,  staves,  shingles,  boards 
of  every  thickness,  scantling,  masts  and  knees  for  shipping; 
and  the  uses  to  which  these  productions  are  applied  are 
endless,  and  of  vast  importance  to  the  people  in  every  sphere 
of  life.  In  North  Carolina  they  have  a  peculiar  kind  of 
pine,  which  they  not  only  manufacture  into  lumber,  but 
from  which  the  inhabitants  obtain  large  quantities  of  tar, 
pitch,  and  turpentine.  In  Alabama  and  Mississippi  they 
have  still  another  variety  of  pine,  which  is  worked  into 
spars  and  masts  by  the  ship-builders  of  the  country.  In 
Florida,  an  extensive  business  is  done  in  preparing  the  live- 


342  LIFE   ASTD   KESOUECES   IX   AMERICA. 

oak  of  that  region  for  use  in  building  the  naval  vessels  of 
the  country, — the  Government  retaining  the  monopoly  of 
that  valuable  product.  In  many  of  the  western  States 
there  is  a  tree  called  the  black  walnut,  which  is  employed 
to  a  great  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  elegant  furniture, 
and  has  competed  successfully  with  the  imported  wood 
called  mahogany. 

With  regard  to  the  various  classes  of  people  engaged  in 
the  lumbering  business,  throughout  the  Union,  the  most 
numerous  are  called  lumbermen.  In  all  those  regions  where 
the  white  pine  and  spruce  and  fir  prevail,  they  form  exten 
sive  parties,  and  spend  the  winter  in  the  dense  forests,  cut 
ting  down  trees  and  dragging  the  logs  to  the  banks  of  the 
streams ;  and  when  spring  comes,  and  the  streams  become 
full  of  water,  they  drive  the  logs  down  the  rivers,  and  in 
immense  quantities,  all  arranged  in  rafts,  deliver  them  at 
the  saw-mills  at  the  mouths  of  the  streams  and  on  navigable 
waters,  where  the  logs  are  turned  into  all  kinds  of  lumber, 
and  thence  shipped  by  vessels  to  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  well  as  to  foreign  countries.  Many  of  the  mer 
chants  or  companies  who  employ  these  lumbermen  do 
business  on  a  scale  of  great  magnitude,  and  they  not  only 
control  the  various  operations  in  the  interior,  but  are  also 
the  owners  of  the  mills  where  the  lumber  is  made,  as  well 
as  many  of  the  vessels  employed  in  the  carrying-trade.  The 
mills  to  which  we  have  alluded  are  generally  so  located  as 
to  be  driven  by  water-power,  and  as  they  are  very  numerous 
and  extensive,  they  give  employment  to  workmen  of  many 
grades,  who  form  a  class  quite  distinct  from  that  of  lumber 
men.  They  are  for  the  most  part  an  intelligent  and  hardy 
race  of  men,  and  fail  not,  when  elections  take  place,  to  exert 


FRONTIER   LIFE   AXD   DEVELOPMENTS.  343 

an  important  influence  on  the  affairs  of  their  own  State  or 
those  of  the  General  Government. 

As  we  pass  into  the  pine-forests  of  Carolina,  we  there 
find  another  state  of  affairs.  In  that  region,  the  manufac 
ture  of  lumber  is  carried  on,  as  already  stated,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  the  production  of  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  and 
by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  men  employed  were 
formerly  the  colored  people  called  slaves,  but  now  known  as 
freedmen.  There,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  the  prevailing  busi 
ness  is  conducted  by  organized  companies  or  by  men  of 
ample  means,  who  give  employment,  and  a  good  support, 
to  large  numbers  of  hard-working  men.  As  to  those  who 
live  in  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  espe 
cially  in  Florida,  and  who  prepare  the  live-oak  timber  for 
use  at  the  Navy  Yards, — they  are  mostly  men  from  the 
north,  with  northern  habits  and  constitutions,  and  are 
exclusively  employed  by  the  General  Government.  They 
also  pursue  their  arduous  labors  in  the  winter-months,  and, 
like  the  lumbermen  of  New  England,  live  in  tents  or  cab 
ins,  and  on  the  plainest  fare.  As  to  the  business  of  spar- 
cutting  in  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  it  requires  so  little 
sagacity,  that  it  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  those  who  own 
the  forest-lands ;  but  when  we  pass  on  to  the  northwest 
ern  States,  where  the  black  walnut  prevails,  we  there  find 
the  business  of  lumbering  fully  organized,  and  the  durable 
and  rich-looking  wood  carefully  prepared  for  transportation 
by  steamboats  or  railroads  to  the  markets  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  There  is  also  an  extensive  lumber  business  done  in 
the  Pacific  States  and  Territories,  and  the  "  big  trees  "  of 
California  have  obtained  a  w~orld-wide  reputation. 


JUDICIAL    LIFE. 


THE  Constitution  provides  that  "  The  judicial  power  of 
the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court, 
and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time 
to  time  ordain  and  establish."  The  Constitution  further 
defines  and  limits  the  judicial  power  as  follows  :  "  1.  The 
judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
their  authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  controversies  to  which  the  Uni 
ted  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between  two 
or  more  States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another 
State,  between  citizens  of  different  States,  between  citi 
zens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of 
different  States,  and  between  a  State  or  the  citizens  thereof 
and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects.  2.  In  all  cases 
affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases 
before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appel 
late  jurisdiction  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  excep 
tions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as  the  Congress  shall 
make." 


JUDICIAL    LIFE.  345 

The  Supreme  Court  being  established  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  Congress  has  from  time  to  time  established  the  fol 
lowing  additional  "inferior  courts"  of  the  United  States, 
vi/.:  the  Circuit  Courts,  the  District  Courts,  the  Court  of 
Claims,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
the  Territorial  Courts,  with  the  Supreme  Court,  constitute 
the  Judiciary  of  the  United  States.  The  outlines  of  their 
powers,  jurisdiction,  etc.,  will  be  briefly  presented  as  fol 
lows  : 

I.  The  Supreme  Court.  The  original  jurisdiction  of  the 
Supreme  Court  is  defined  in  the  Constitution,  as  quoted. 
Its  appellate  jurisdiction  is  also  there  defined,  but  is  pro 
vided  to  be  subject  to  exceptions  and  regulation  by  Con 
gress.  This  power  Congress  has  exercised  in  the  following 
instances.  Appeals  from  these  Circuit  Courts  to  the 
Supreme  Court,  in  civil  actions,  equity  cases,  and  admi 
ralty  and  prize  cases,  are  restricted  to  those  in  which  the 
matter  in  dispute  exceeds  the  sum  or  value  of  two  thou 
sand  dollars,  exclusive  of  costs.  But  this  restriction  does 
not  apply  to  patent,  copyright,  or  revenue  cases;  nor  does 
it  affect  appeals  in  criminal  cases.  Congress  has  also  pro 
vided  that  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  juris 
diction  from  judgments  or  decrees  of  the  highest  courts  of 
the  several  States,  in  suits  where  is  drawn  in  question  the 
validity  of  a  treaty  or  statute  of,  or  an  authority,  exercised 
under,  the  United  States,  and  the  decision  has  been  against 
their  validity  ;  or  where  is  drawn  in  question  the  validity 
of  a  statute  of,  or  an  authority  exercised  under,  any  State, 
on  the  ground  of  their  being  repugnant  to  the  Constitution, 
treaties,  or  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the  decision  is 

in  favor  of  such  validity ;  or  where  any  title,  right,  privi- 

15* 


346  LIFE   AND   EESOUECES   IN   AMERICA. 

lege,  or  immunity  is  claimed  under  the  Constitution,  treat 
ies,  or  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the  decision  is 
against  the  title,  rights,  etc.  But  from  the  operations  of 
these  provisions  are  excepted  cases  of  persons  held  in  the 
custody  of  the  military  authorities  of  the  United  States, 
charged  with  military  offences,  or  with  having  aided  or 
abetted  rebellion  against  the  Government. 

The  Supreme  Court  sits  at  Washington,  and  holds  one 
annual  session,  commencing  on  the  first  Monday  in 
December,  with  such  adjourned  or  special  terms  as  maybe 
found  necessary  for  the  despatch  of  business.  It  consists 
of  a  Chief-Justice  and  eight  Justices,  who,  in  common 
with  all  the  United  States  Judges,  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior.  The  salary  of  the  Chief-Justice  is  eight 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars;  that  of  each  of  the  Jus 
tices  eight  thousand  dollars  per  annum.  Six  of  the  nine 
constitute  a  quorum. 

II.  The  Circuit  Courts  are  nine  in  number ;  the  United 
States  being  divided  into  nine  circuits,  each  comprising 
three  or  more  districts.  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 
are  allotted  by  that  Court  to  the  several  circuits,  to  assist 
in  holding  the  Circuit  Courts.  Each  circuit  has  besides  a 
Circuit  Judge  with  a  salary  of  six  thousand  dollars;  with 
the  same  power  and  jurisdiction  as  the  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  allotted  to  the  circuit.  The  Circuit  Court 
in  each  circuit  is  held  by  the  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
or  by  the  Circuit  Judge  of  the  circuit,  or  by  tho 
District  Judge  of  the  district — sitting  alone;  or  by 
the  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  Circuit  Judge  sitting 
together ;  or  (in  the  absence  of  either  of  them)  by  the 
other  and  the  district  judge.  Where  two  judges  hold  a 


JUDICIAL   LIFE.  347 

Circuit  Court,  and  differ  in  opinion,  the  law  provides  for  a 
special  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court.  There  are  two  an 
nual  sessions  of  each  Circuit  Court,  with  special  sessions  for 
the  trial  of  criminal  cases.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Circuit 
Courts  is  as  follows:  They  have  concurrent  jurisdiction, 
with  the  State  Courts,  of  civil  suits  at  common  law  and 
equity,  where  the  matter  in  dispute  exceeds,  exclusive  of 
costs,  the  sum  or  value  of  five  hundred  dollars,  and  where 
the  United  States  are  plaintiffs  or  petitioners,  or  an  alien 
is  a  party  (but  not  where  both  parties  are  aliens) ;  or 
where  the  suit  is  between  a  citizen  of  the  State  in  which 
the  suit  is  brought,  and  a  citizen  of  another  State.  They 
have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  crimes  and  offences  cog 
nizable  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  except 
of  such  as  are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  District  Courts, 
and  of  those  they  have  concurrent  jurisdiction.  They  have 
also  original  jurisdiction  in  all  patent  and  copyright  cases, 
and  their  jurisdiction  also  extends  to  all  cases  arising  un 
der  the  revenue  laws.  They  are  also  invested  with  juris 
diction  of  certain  classes  of  cases  removed  to  them,  under 
special  statutes,  from  the  State  Courts ;  including  suits  be 
tween  citizens  of  different  States,  suits  against  aliens,  and 
suits  and  prosecutions  against  military  and  other  officers 
of  the  Government.  The  Circuit  Courts  entertain  appeals 
from  the  District  Courts  in  criminal  cases,  and  in  civil 
cases  where  the  matter  in  dispute  exceeds  the  sum  of  fifty 
dollars. 

III.  The  United  States  is  further  divided  into  districts, 
for  the  holding  of  U.  S.  District  Courts  therein.  A  district 
usually  includes  a  single  State ;  but  the  larger  States  are 
divided  into  two  or.  sometimes  three  districts.  For  each 


348  LIFE   AI^D   "RESOURCES   IJT   AMERICA. 

district  there  is  a  District  Judge,  who  holds  four  regular 
sessions  of  the  District  Court  annually.  The  salaries  of  the 
District  Judges  are  different  in  different  parts  of  the  coun 
try.  The  District  Courts  have  original  and  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  admiralty  and  maritime  cases,  of  cases  of 
seizures  on  land  and  water,  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  suits  brought  for  penalties  and  forfeitures 
incurred  under  said  laws.  They  have  also  jurisdiction,  ex 
clusive  of  the  State  Courts,  of  suits  against  consuls,  vice- 
consuls,  etc.  They  have  also  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  Circuit  Courts  in  cases  of  crimes  and  offences,  not 
capital,  committed  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 
Also  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  such  courts  and  the  State 
Courts  of  suits  at  common  law,  in  which  the  United  States, 
or  any  officer  thereof,  may  sue,  under  the  authority  of  any 
law  of  the  United  States.  Also  a  similar  jurisdiction  of 
all  suits  by  aliens,  on  account  of  (torts)  in  violation  o*f  the 
laws  of  nations  or  a  treaty  of  the  United  States. 

IV.  The  Court  of  Claims  sits  in  the  Capitol  at  Washing 
ton,  and  commences  its  regular  annual  session  on  the  same 
day  as  the  Supreme  Court,  viz.:  the  first  Monday  in  Decem 
ber.  It  consists  of  a  Chief- Justice  and  four  Justices,  with 
a  salary  of  four  thousand  dollars  each.  It  has  jurisdiction 
of  "  all  claims  founded  upon  any  law  of  Congress,  or  upon 
any  regulation  of  an  executive  department,  or  upon  any 
contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  which  may  be  suggested  to  it  by  a  petition 
filed  therein,  and  also  all  claims  which  may  be  referred  to 
said  court  by  either  House  of  Congress ;  " — also  jurisdiction 
of  all  counter-claims  and  demands,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  against  any  persons  making  claim  against 


JUDICIAL  LIFE.  349 

the  Government  in  said  court;  also  jurisdiction  of  claims 
to  property  captured  or  abandoned  during  the  rebellion ; 
also  jurisdiction  of  the  claims  of  disbursing  officers  of  the 
United  States  for  relief  from  responsibility  on  account  of 
losses  of  public  property  by  capture  or  otherwise  while  in 
the  line  of  duty;  and  of  some  other  claims  of  less  general 
importance.  The  court  is  precluded  from  passing  upon 
claims  for  supplies  taken,  injuries  done,  etc.,  by  United 
States  troops  during  the  rebellion,  and  from  rendering 
judgment  in  favor  of  any  claimant  who  has  not  been  loyal 
to  the  United  States.  Appeals  may  be  taken  by  the 
United  States  to  the  Supreme  Court  in  all  cases  where  the 
judgment  is  adverse  to  the  United  States;  and  by  the 
claimant  where  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds  three 
thousand  dollars.  This  Courtis  the  only  court  of  the  U.  S. 
in  which  the  United  States  can  be  directly  sued  as  a 
defendant. 

V.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  con 
sists  of  a  Chief-Justice  and  three  other  Justices,  and  holds 
its  sessions  at  the  City  Hall  in  Washington.  The  salary 
of  the  Chief-Justice  is  four  thousand  five  hundred  dollars, 
and  of  each  of  the  other  Justices  four  thousand  dollars. 
This  court  combines  the  general  powers  and  jurisdiction 
of  a  Circuit  Court  and  a  District  Court.  Any  single  one  of 
its  judges  is  authorized  to  hold  a  District  Court.  Its  juris 
diction  extends  only  to  civil  proceedings  instituted,  and 
crimes  committed,  in  the  District  of  Columbia;  and  to 
cases  of  seizures  on  land  and  water  made,  and  penalties 
and  forfeitures  incurred,  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  within  the  same  limits  only.  It  entertains  appeals 
from  the  local  justices  of  the  peace  and  police  courts;  and 


350  LIFE  AXD   RESOURCES  IN  AMERICA. 

its  final  judgments,  orders,  and  decrees  are  subject  to  be 
appealed  from  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

VI.  Territorial  Courts.  When  a  territorial  government 
is  organized  by  Congress  for  any  Territory,  a  judiciary  is 
provided,  consisting  generally  of  a  Supreme  Court  of  three 
or  more  judges,  District  Courts,  to  be  held  by  the  Judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court  separately,  Probate  Courts,  and  Justices' 
Courts.  The  District  Courts  are  invested  with  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  the  Circuit  and  District  Courts  of  the  United  States ; 
and  an  appeal  is  given  from  the  District  Courts  to  the 
Supreme  Court.  An  appeal  is  also  provided  from  the 
Supreme  Court  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  same  manner  as  from  a  Circuit  Court.  When 
a  Territory  is  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  these 
courts  cease  to  exist,  being  supplanted  by  the  State  Courts. 


ADDITIONAL    ITOTES. 


AFTER  the  foregoing  chapters  on  Religious  and  Edu 
cational  Life  had  been  printed,  we  obtained  some  later 
official  information  on  those  subjects,  which  we  append  in 
this  place.  In  1870  three  States  of  the  Union  passed  laws 
compelling  the  education  of  all  children  with  sound  minds 
and  bodies.  The  total  number  of  colleges  in  the  country 
is  368,  of  which  261  are  supported  by  the  different  reli 
gious  denominations.  In  these  institutions  there  are  2,962 
instructors  and  49,827  pupils;  in  99  of  them  males  and 
females  are  instructed,  while  the  balance  are  confined  to 
males;  and  besides  these,  there  are  136  institutions  for  the 
superior  instruction  of  females  alone,  in  which  there  are 
3,163  teachers  and  12,841  pupils.  Of  medical  schools, 
there  are  57;  theological  schools,  117;  law  schools,  40 ; 
normal  schools,  51 ;  and  business  schools,  84.  Connected 
with  these  various  institutions  there  are  180  libraries,  with 
2,355,237  volumes.  The  benefactions  to  educational  objects 
by  private  citizens  were  quite  unparalleled  in  1870,  amount 
ing  in  the  aggregate  to  $8,435,990.  With  regard  to  the 
effect  of  education  upon  crime,  we  find  that  there  was  one 
homicide  to  every  56,000  people,  one  to  every  4,000  in  the 
Pacific  States,  and  one  to  every  10,000  in  the  Southern 
States.  At  least  80  per  cent,  of  the  crime  of  New  Eng 
land  is  committed  by  those  who  have  no  education ;  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  90  per  cent,  of  the  criminals  were  illite 
rate  ;  7  5  per  cent,  were  foreigners ;  and  from  80  to  90  per 
cent,  connected  their  career  of  crime  with  intemperance. 
From  these  figures,  the  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  igno 
rance  breeds  crime,  and  education  is  the  remedy  for  the 
crime  that  prevails. 


352  LIFE   AND   RESOURCES   IN   AMERICA. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  preceding  article  on  agricul 
ture,  we  append  the  following  statement :  The  total  value 
of  farm-products  in  the  United.  States  and  Territories,  dur 
ing  the  year  ending  June  31,  1870,  according  to  the  census, 
was  $2,445,000,000.  The  largest  product  was  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  and  the  second  largest  in  Illinois. 

N"ow  that  this  little  book  is  finished,  the  mind  of  the 
compiler  naturally  turns  to  take  a  single  comprehensive 
view  of  the  great  country  which  has  been  briefly  described. 
It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  century  and  of  the 
world.  The  extent  of  its  domain  and  its  unbounded  re 
sources,  the  peaceful  blending  of  its  many  nationalities, 
the  well-nigh  unlimited  diffusion  of  intelligence  and  knowl 
edge,  and  the  free,  cosmopolitan  character  of  its  people, 
combine  to  give  it  a  conspicuous  position  among  the 
nations.  At  the  very  moment  when  these  closing  lines  are 
being  written,  a  Diplomatic  Embassy  from  the  Tenno  of 
Japan  is  on  the  point  of  visiting  the  city  of  Washington, 
and  the  fact  cannot  but  have  made  an  impression  on  their 
minds,  that,  after  landing  on  the  soil  of  America,  they  have 
been  compelled  to  travel  more  than  three  thousand  miles 
before  reaching  the  metropolis.  But  when  the  Ambassa 
dors,  and  the  other  high  officials  who  accompany  them,  are 
informed  as  to  the  warm  welcome  which  is  in  store  for 
them  from  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  and 
many  of  the  leading  men  and  corporations  throughout  the 
Union,  and  when  they  shall  have  experienced  the  un 
bounded  hospitality  of  the  American  people  generally, 
they  will  undoubtedly  be  deeply  impressed,  and  effectually 
convinced  that  America  and  Japan  are  strongly  bound 
together  by  the  cords  of  sincere  regard  and  unselfish 
affection. 


13  4032 


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